o>' 









%• 



.0^^ 



^^ -n^. 



-:^^ 






// *> 






^ .0^ 



v < 



c 



.,^ 






.* ,'^ 






'.■^ 






.0*^ 



"^y. C» 



\. '^-tt 



o5 -^^ 









A*^' 






.^ '^ ° \<. .<v .iyj" 



c> t- 






\b 



.0^,.^ 



1 fl 



<. ' , ^ -^ ,A 






'^^^ -'..^^^^0^ 



.^* 



.^^ 



^OlsTo^^N^' "^ 






* 8 I \ "* ^ ,#' 






0- .-»,/^o/"' v^\^-^'.''^' 



.^ ■' . 






A 






--J 



■^c. ' 






^^ 



^U 






/ ,, , ^ A 






■^^V .A^^ 



.\' 









4^ 



^- .^^ 



A 






I « 



'^>.. 















^'- A^' 






■^" 






". '^ 









''O. c*-^ 



*-'^ 



Oo 



-^c^ 



V 



A SHORT 

HISTORY OF EDUCATION : 

Being a reprint of the article 

From the ninth edition of the 
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA. 

EDITED, q 

With an Introduction, Bibliography, Notes 
and References, 

BY 

V/. H. PAYNE, A.M., 

Professor of the Science and the Art of Teaching, ia 

the University of Michigan. Author of Chapters 

on School Supervision, and A Syllabus of 

Lectures on the Science and t7i.e 

Art of Teaching. 



< 



..Ziiu^ ']■ 



SYRACUSE, N. Y. : 

C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER. 

1881. 






Copyright, 1881, by W. H. Payae. 



INTRODUCTION. 



In this counlry, the purpose of normal 
instruction seems to be to prepare young 
men and women in the shortest and most 
direct way for doing school-room work. 
The equipment needed for this work is a 
knowledge of subjects and an empirical 
knowledge of methods ; and so the normal 
schools furnish sound academic training, 
and pupils are taught methods of instruc- 
tion by actual practice in experimental 
schools. In all this, the mechanical, or 
empirical, element seems to be held upper- 
most in thought. Pupils must be trained 
for practical ends ; they must, so to speak, 
be converted into instruments for doing 
prescribed work by prescribed methods ; 
and anything that promises to detract 
from their value as machines, must be 



IV SHORT HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 

Studiously avoided. The artisan thus ap- 
pears to be the ideal product of the normal 
school. 

I do not presume to say that this con- 
ception of the purpose of normal instruc- 
tion is wrong. J claim only the right to 
think and to say that I hold an essentially 
different view, and that I am attempting 
to give professional instruction to teachers 
on a totally different hypothesis. I believe 
that the great bar to educational progress 
is the mechanical teaching that is so prev- 
alent, and that is so fostered and encour- 
aged by normal schools. I believe that an 
intelligent scholar, furnished with a few 
clearly defined principles, and free to 
throw his own personality into his 
methods, is far more likely to grow into 
an accomplished teacher than one who 
goes to his work with the conviction that 
he must follow prescribed patterns, and 
has not that versatility that comes from an 
extension of his intellectual horizon. The 
value of a teacher depends upon his worth 
as a man, rather than upon his value as an 
instrument. Man becomes an instrument 



INTRODUCTION. V 

only by losing worth as a man. In nor- 
mal instruction there is need of greater 
faith in the potency of ideas, and less faith 
in the value of drill, imitation, and routine. 

It is possible that in some grades of 
school work a purely mechanical teaching 
is best; that he is the best teacher who is 
most of an artisan, — with whom teaching 
is most of a handicraft. But I do not be- 
lieve this. The rules that are best for 
working on wood and stone are not the 
best when applied to mind and character. 
Undoubtedly, there is a mechanical ele- 
ment in the teaching art ; but this is sub- 
ordinate to that other element that wholly 
escapes mechanical measurements, because 
it has to do with the manifestations of free 
spirit. In other words, I am persuaded 
that a teacher is poor to the degree in 
which he is an artisan, and good to the 
degree in which he is an artist ; and that 
nothing is so much needed by teachers of 
every class as an infusion of that freedom 
and versatility that are possible only 
through an extension of the mental vision 
by means of a more liberal culture. 



VI SHORT HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 

While I may be wrong in the general hy- 
pothesis,! feel that I am right in the follow- 
ing particulars : There must be some teach- 
ers who are more than mere instruments, 
more than operatives, more than artisans ; 
there must be some who can see processes 
as they are related to law, — who, while 
obedient to law, can throw their own per- 
sonality into their methods and can make 
such adaptations of them as varying circum- 
stances may demand. If most teachers are 
doomed to be the slaves of routine, there 
must be some who have the ability to cre- 
ate and to control. In a word, along with 
the great multitude of mere teachers, there 
must be a growing body of educators. I 
cannot but think that in every normal 
school there are men and women who would 
love to walk upon these heights, to breathe 
this freer air, and who would thus see in 
teaching a fair field for the exercise of their 
best gifts. The attention of such should 
be drawn somewhat away from the merely 
mechanical aspects of teaching, and fixed 
on those professional studies that will 
broaden the teacher's vision and give him 



INTRODUCTION. Vll 

the consciousness of some degree of cre- 
ative power. The studies I mean are Edu- 
cational Science and Educational His- 
tory. 

It has been said that a teacher who is 
wholly ignorant of the history of educa- 
tion may still do excellent work in the 
school-room. This does not admit ot the 
least doubt. It is also true that men at- 
tain long lives in complete ignorance of 
the laws of digestion, and that they become 
voters and office-holders while knowing 
nothing of their country's history; but it 
does not follow that physiology and his- 
tory are needless studies. A fair knowl- 
edge of the history of one's own country 
is now thought to be an essential element 
in good citizenship ; and I see no reason 
why a fair knowledge of the history of ed- 
ucational systems and doctrines should 
not form a very desirable element in a 
teacher's education. He may teach well 
without this knowledge ; but having it, he 
will feel an inspiring sense of the nobility 
of his calling, will teach more intelligently, 
and will give a richer quality to his work. 



Vlll SHORT HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 

Intelligent patriotism is evoked by a vivid 
knowledge of Plymouth Rock, of the 
American Revolution, and of Mount Ver- 
non ; and no teacher can think meanly of 
his calling who has learned to trace his 
professional ancestry through Plato, Co- 
menius, Locke, Cousin, and Arnold. 

As exhibiting the general grounds on 
which the history of education should be 
made a topic of instruction for at least a 
part of the teaching class, I repeat some 
observations made on another occasion. 

" General History is a liberal study in 
the sense that it greatly extends the hori- 
zon of our sympathies, widens our field of 
intellectual vision, and thus makes us cos- 
mopolitan and catholic, — true citizens of 
the world. Historical study has also a 
very great practical value. It gives us 
the benefit of collective human experience 
as exhibited under every variety of circum- 
stances and conditions. It relates the 
origin, succession,and termination of all the 
marked events in human progress. It 
thus saves us from repeating experiments 
already tried, forewarns us against dan- 



INTRODUCTION. ix 

gers that ever beset the path of the inex- 
perienced, and assures to each generation 
the results of the real additions made to 
the stock of human progress. 

For the most part, the events recorded 
in history are the results of the unpremed- 
itated actions of man. Humanity at large 
seems to be impelled onward by an irresist- 
ible but unconscious impulse, just as a 
glacier moves over mountains and through 
valleys, with a silent yet irresistible might. 
This life of mere impulse is the lower life 
of nations and peoples, just as the period 
of impulse marks the lower and imperfect 
life of the individual. But in nations as well 
as in individuals, the period of reflection 
at last comes, and this is the period when 
histories begin to be written and read. 
The effect of historical study is thus to 
check mere impulse, and to convert un- 
conscious progress into self-conscious and 
reflective efforts towards determinate 
ends. 

In all nations that have passed beyond 
the period of mere barbarism, there has 
been some degree of conscious and in- 



X SHORT HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 

tended effort after progress, some prepar- 
ation for the duties of citizenship, some at- 
tempt to make the future better than the 
past has been. This conscious effort to 
place each generation on a vantage-ground, 
through some deliberate training or pre- 
paration, is, in its widest sense, education. 

Now if history in general, as it records 
the unconscious phases of human progress, 
is a study of supreme value, that part of 
general history which records the reflec- 
tive efforts of men to rise superior to their 
actual present, must teach lessons of even 
higher value. This is emphatically an 
educating age. The minds of the wisest 
and the best are intent on devising means 
whereby progress may be hastened through 
the resources of human art. In the world 
of educational thought, all is ferment and 
discussion. We are passing beyond the 
period of reckless experiment and are 
seeking anchorage in doctrines deduced 
from the permanent principles of human 
nature. Educational Science is giving us 
a glimmer of light ahead, and we do well 
to shape our course by it. W/iat ought to 



INTRODUCTION. Xi 

be should indeed be our pole-star; but 
until this has been defined with more pre- 
cision, we should also shape our course by- 
looking back on what has been. We should 
think of ourselves as moving through the 
darkness or over an unknown region, with 
a light before us and a light behind us. 
Our two inquiries should be, Whence have 
we come? Whither are we going? His- 
torical progress is tortuous, but its general 
direction is right. The history of what 
has been must therefore contain some ele- 
ments of truth. The past at least fore- 
shadows the future, and we may infer the 
direction of progress by comparing what 
has been with 7uhat is. In education, there- 
fore, we need to know the past, both as a 
means of taking stock of progress, and 
also of foreshadowing the future. We 
should give a large place to the ideal ele- 
ments in our courses of normal instruc- 
tion ; but we should also make a large use 
of the results of experience. All true 
progress is a transition. The past has in- 
sensibly led up to the present; let the 
present merge into the future. Let his- 



Xll SHORT HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 

tory foreshadow philosophy; and let phi- 
losophy introduce its corrections and 
ameliorations into the lessons of history." 

An obstacle to the study of the history 
of education in this country, has been the 
lack of suitable books on this subject. In 
English, we have only Schmidt's History 
of Education, and the History and Progress 
of Education by Philobiblius (^L. P. Brock- 
ett^. At best, these are mere outlines, 
and considered as outlines, they are very 
imperfect and unsatisfactory. In seeking 
for a text that I might make the basis of 
a short course of instruction for students 
in this University, I have found the article 
Education in the ninth edition of the En- 
cyclopaedia Britannica admirably adapted 
to my purpose; and I have thought that a 
reprint of it, under the title of A Short 
History of Education might be acceptable to 
the general reader, to intelligent and pro- 
gressive teachers, and to the members of the 
profession who are engaged in the educa- 
tion of teachers. To make this outline 
more useful to teachers and students, I have 
added a select list of educational works, 



INTRODUCTION. ' Xlll 

and have arranged a list of the more im- 
portant topics suggested by this outline^ 
with references to these authorities. By 
this means the course of study may be ex- 
tended almost at will. It may embrace 
merely this admirable outline, and thus 
occupy but a few days, or it may be pur- 
sued on the seminary plan, and thus in- 
definitely extended. I have considerably 
multiplied my notes and references on 
Comenius, in the hope of exciting an in- 
terest in the study of one of the greatest 
of the educational reformers. 

For the copy for this reprint, I am in- 
debted to the courtesy of J. M. Stod- 
dart & Co., Philadelphia, the publishers of 
the American reprint of the Encyclopaedia 
Britannica. 

W. H. Payne. 

University of Michigan^ 

January 22, 1881, 



A SHORT 

HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 



SHORT 
j4lgT0RY Of i^DUCATION, 



This article is mainly concerned with 
the history of educational theories in the 
chief crises of their development. It has 
not been the object of the writer to give a 
history of the practical working of these 
theories, and still less to sketch the out- 
lines of the science of teaching, which may 
be more conveniently dealt with under 
another head. The earliest education is 
that of the family. The child must be 
trained not to interfere with its parents" 
convenience, and to acquire those little 
arts which will help in maintaining the 
economy of the household. It was long 
before any attempt was made to improve 
generations as they succeeded each other. 
The earliest schools were those of the 
priests. As soon as an educated priesthood 
had taken the place of the diviners and 
jugglers who abused the credulity of the 
earliest races, schools of the prophets be- 
came a necessity. The training required 
for ceremonials, the common life apart 



l8 ORIGIN OF EDUCATION. 

from the family, the accomplishments of 
reading and singing, afforded a nucleus for 
the organization of culture and an oppor- 
tunity for the efforts of a philosopher in 
advance of his age. Covenience and grati- 
tude confirmed the monopoly of the clergy. 
The schools of Judea and Egypt were ec- 
clesiastical. The Jews had but little effect 
on the progress of science, but our obliga- 
tions to the priests of the Nile valley are 
great indeed. Much of their learning is 
obscure to us, but we have reason to con- 
clude that there is no branch of science in 
which they did not progress at least so far 
as observation and careful registration of 
facts could carry them. They were a 
source of enlightenment to surrounding 
nations. Not only the great lawgiver of 
the Jews, but those who were most active 
in stimulating the nascent energies of 
Hellas were careful to train themselves in 
the wisdom of the Egyptians. Greece, in 
g^iving an undying name to the literature 
of Alexandria, was only repaying the debt 
which she had incurred centuries before. 
Education became secular in countries 
where the priesthood did not exist as a 
separate body. At Rome, until Greece 
took her conqueror captive, a child was 
trained for the duties of life in the forum 
and the senate house. The Greeks were 
the first to develop a science of education 



GREECE. 19 

distinct from ecclesiastical training. They 
divided their subjects of study into music 
and gymnastics, the one comprising all 
mental, the other all physical training. 
Music was at first little more than the 
study of the art of expression. But the 
range of intellectual education which had 
been developed by distinguished musical 
teachers was further widened by the Soph- 
ists, until it received a new stimulus and 
direction from the work of Socrates. Who 
can forget the picture left us by Plato of 
the Athenian palaestra, in which Socrates 
was sure to find his most ready listeners 
and his most ardent disciples ? In the in- 
tervals of running, wrestling, or the bath, 
the young Phaedrus or Theaetetus discussed 
with the philosophers who had come to 
watch them on the good, the beautiful, and 
the true. The lowest efforts of their teach- 
ers were to fit them to maintain any view 
they might adopt with acuteness, elegance, 
readiness, and good taste. Their highest 
efforts were to stimulate a craving for the 
knowledge of the unknowable, to rouse a 
dissatisfaction with received opinions, and 
to excite a curiosity which grew stronger 
with the revelation of each sucessive mys- 
tery. Plato is the author of the first syste- 
matic treatise on education. He deals with 
the subject in his earlier dialogues, he enters 
into it with great fulness of detail in the 



20 PLATO. 

Republic^ and it occupies an important po- 
sition in the Laws. The views thus ex- 
pressed differ considerably in particulars^ 
and it is therefore difficult to give con- 
cisely the precepts drawn up by him for 
our obedience. But the same spirit under- 
lies his whole teaching. He never forgets 
that the beautiful is undistinguishable from 
the true, and that the mind is best fitted to 
solve difficult problems which has been 
trained by the enthusiatic contemplation of 
art. Plato proposes to intrust education 
to the state. He lays great stress on the 
influence of race and blood. Strong and 
worthy children are likely to spring from 
strong and worthy parents. Music and 
gymnastics are to develop the emotions of 
young men during their earliest years — 
the one to strengthen their character for 
the contest of life, the other to excite in 
them varying feelings of resentment or 
tenderness. Reverence, the ornament of 
youth, is to be called forth by well-chosen 
fictions; a long and rigid training in sci- 
ence is to precede discussion on more im- 
portant subjects. At length the goal is 
reached, and the ripest^ovisdom is ready to 
be applied to the most important practice. 
The great work of Quintilian, although 
mainly a treatise on oratory, also contains 
incidentally a complete sketch of a theo- 
retical education. His object is to show 



ROME. 21 

US how to form the man of practice. But 
what a high conception of practice is his ! 
He wrote for a race of rulers. He incul- 
eates much which has been attributed to 
the wisdom of a later age. He urges the 
importance of studying individual disposi- 
tions, and of tenderness in discipline and 
punishment. The Romans understood no 
systematic training except in oratory. In 
their eyes every citizen was a born com- 
mander, and they knew of no science of 
government and political economy. Cic- 
ero speaks slightingly even of jurispru- 
dence. Any one, he says, can make him- 
self a jurisconsult in a week; but an orator 
is the production of a litetime. No state- 
ment can be less true than that a perfect 
orator is a perfect man. But wisdom and 
philanthropy broke even through that bar- 
rier, and the training which Quintilian ex- 
pounds to us as intended only for the pub- 
lic speaker would, in the language of Mil- 
ton, fit a man to perform justly, wisely, 
and magnanimously all the offices, both 
public and private, of peace and war. 

Such are the ideas which the old world 
has left us. On one side man, beautiful, 
active, clever, receptive, emotional, quick 
to feel, to show his feeling, to argue, to re- 
fine ; greedy of the pleasures of the world, 
perhaps a little neglectful of its duties, 
fearing restraint as an unjust stinting of 



22 QUINTILIAN. 

the bounty of nature, inquiring eagerly 
into every secret, strongly attached to the 
things of this life, but elevated by an 
unabated striving after the highest ideal ; 
setting no value but upon faultless ab- 
stractions, and seeing reality only in 
heaven, on earth mere shadows, phantoms, 
and copies of the unseen. On the other 
side man, practical, energetic, eloquent, 
tinged but not imbued with philosophy,, 
trained to spare neither himself nor others, 
reading and thinking only with an apology; 
best engaged in defending a political prin- 
ciple, in maintaining with gravity and 
solemnity the conservation of ancient free- 
dom, in leading armies through unexplored 
deserts, establishing roads, fortresses, set- 
tlements, the results of conquest, or in 
ordering and superintending the slow, cer- 
tain, and utter annihilation of some enemy 
of Rome. Has the modern world ever 
surpassed their type ? Can we in the 
present day produce anything by educa- 
tion except by combining, blending, and 
modifying the self-culture of the Greek or 
the self-sacrifice of the Roman ? 

The literarary education of the earliest 
generation of Christians was obtained in 
the pagan schools, in those great imperial 
academies which existed even down to the 
fifth century, which flourished in Europe, 
Asia, and Africa, and attained perhaps 



CHRISTIANITY, 23 

their highest development and efficiency in 
Gaul. The first attempt to provide a 
special education for Christians was made 
at Alexandria, and is illustrated by the 
names of Clement and Origen. The later 
Latin fathers took a bolder stand, and re- 
jected the suspicious aid of heathenism. 
Tertullian, Cyprian, and Jerome wished 
the antagonism between Christianity and 
Paganism to be recogized from the earliest 
years, and even Augustine condemned with 
harshness the culture to which he owed so 
much of his influence. The education of 
the Middle Ages was either that of the 
cloister or the castle. The object of the 
one was to form the young monk, of the 
other the young knight. We should in- 
deed be ungrateful if we forgot the services 
of those illustrious monasteries, Monte 
Cassino, Fulda, or Tours, which kept alive 
the torch of learning throughout the dark 
ages, but it would be equally mistaken to 
attach an exaggerated importance to the 
teachings which they provided. Long 
hours were spent in the duties of the church 
and in learning to take a part in elaborate 
and useless ceremonies. A most impor- 
tant part of the monastery was the writing- 
room, where missals, psalters, and brevia- 
ries were copied and illuminated, and too 
often a masterpiece of classic literature was 
effaced to make room for a treatise of 



24 THE MIDDLE AGES. 

one of the fathers or the sermon of an 
abbot. The discipline was hard; the rod 
ruled all with indiscriminating and impar- 
tial severity. How many generations have 
had to suffer for the floggings of those 
times ! Hatred ot learning, antagonism 
between the teacher and the taught, the 
belief that no training can be effectual 
which is not repulsive and distasteful, that 
no subject is proper for instruction which 
is acquired with ease and pleasure — all 
these idols of false education have their 
root and origin in monkish cruelty. The 
joy of human life would have been in dan- 
ger of being stamped out if it had not 
been for the warmth and color of a young 
knight's boyhood. He was equally well 
broken in to obedience and hardship, but 
the obedience was the willing service of a 
mistress whom he loved, and the hardship 
the permission to share the dangers of a 
leader whom he emulated. The seven arts 
of monkish training were Grammar, Dia- 
lectics, Rhetoric, Music, Arithmetic, 
Geometry, Astronomy, which together 
formed the trivium and quadrivium^ the seven 
years' course, the divisions of which have 
profoundly affected our modern training. 
One of the earliest treatises based on this 
method was that of Martianus Capella, who 
in 470 published his Satyra, in nine books. 
The first two were devoted to the marriage 



TRIVIUM AND QUADRIVIUM. 25 

between Philology and Mercury, the last 
seven were each devoted to the considera- 
tion of one of these liberal arts. Cassio- 
dorus, who wrote De Septe?n Disciplinis _ 
about 500, was also largely used as a text- 
book in the schools. Astronomy was 
taught by the Cisio-Janus, a collection of 
doggrel hexameters like the Propria qux 
maribus, which contained the chief festivals 
in each month, with a memoria technica for 
recollecting when they occurred. The 
seven knightly accomplishments, as histo- 
rians tell us, were to ride, to swim, to 
shoot with the bow, to box, to hawk, to 
play chess, and to make verses. The 
verses thus made were not in Latin, bald 
imitations of Ovid or Horace, whose pagan 
beauties were wrested into the service of 
religion, but sonnets, ballads, and canzo- 
nets in soft Provencal or melodious Italian. 
'In nothing-, perhaps, is the difference be- 
tween these two forms of education more 
clearly shown than in their relations to 
women. A young monk was brought up 
to regard a woman as the worst among the 
many temptations of St. Anthony. His 
life knew no domestic tenderness or affec- 
tion. He was surrounded and cared for 
by celibates, to be himself a celibate. A 
page was trained to receive his best reward 
and worst punishment from the smile or 
frown of the ladv of the castle, and as he 



26 MONK AND KNIGHT. 

grew to manhood to cherish an absorbing 
passion as the strongest stimulus to a 
noble life, and the contemplation of female 
virtue, as embodied in an Isolde or a Beat- 
rice, as the truest earnest of future immor- 
tality. 

Both these forms of education disap- 
peared before the Renaissance and the 
Reformation. But we must not suppose 
that no efforts were made to improve upon 
the narrowness of the schoolmen or the 
idleness of chivalry. The schools of 
Charles the Great have lately been inves- 
tigated by Mr. Mullinger, but we do not 
find that they materially advanced the 
science of education. Vincent of Beauvais 
has left us a very complete treatise on ed- 
ucation, written about the year 1245. He 
was the friend and counsellor of St. Louis, 
and we may discern his influence in the 
instructions which were left by that sainted 
king for the guidance of his son and daugh- 
ter through life. The end of this period 
was marked by the rise of universities. 
Bologna devoted itself to law, aud num- 
bered 12000 at the end of the 12th century. 
Salerno adopted as its special province the 
study of medicine, and Paris was thronged 
with students from all parts of Europe, 
who were anxious to devote themselves to 
a theology which passed by indefinite gra- 
dations into philosophy. The 14th and 



BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE. 27 

15th centuries witnessed the rise of uni- 
versities and academies in almost every 
portion of Europe, Perhaps the most in- 
teresting among these precursors of a 
higher culture were the Brethren of the 
Common Life, who were domiciled in the 
rich meadows of the Yssel, in the Northern 
Netherlands. The metropolis of their or- 
ganization was Deventer, the best known 
name among them that of Gerhard Groote. 
They devoted themselves with all humility 
and self-sacrifice to the education of chiU 
dren. Their schools were crowded. Bois- 
le-Duc numbered 1200 pupils, Zwolle 1500. 
For a hundred years no part of Europe 
shone with a brighter lustre. As the di- 
vine comedy of Dante represents for us the 
learning and piety of the Middle Ages in 
Italy, so the Imitatio7i of Thomas a Kempis 
keeps alive for us the memory of the purity 
and sweetness of the Dutch community. 
But they had not sufficient strength to 
preserve their supremacy among the nec- 
essary developments of the age. They 
could not support the glare of the new 
Italian learning; they obtained, and it may 
be feared deserved, the title of obscuran- 
tists. The EpistolcE Obscuronwi Vtrorum^ 
the wittiest squib of the Middle Ages, 
which was so true and so subtle in its satire 
that it was hailed as a blow struck in de- 
fence of the ancient learning, consists in. 



28 THE RENAISSANCE. 

great part of the lamentations of the breth- 
ren of Deventer over the new age, which 
they could not either comprehend or with- 
stand. The education of the Renaissance 
is best represented by the name of Eras- 
mus, that of the Reformation by the names 
of Luther and Melanchthon. We have no 
•space to give an account of that marvel- 
lous resurrection of the mind and spirit of 
Europe when touched by the dead hand of 
an extinct civilization. The history of the 
revival of letters belongs rather to the gen- 
eral history of literature than to that of 
education. But there are two names 
whom we ought not to pass over. Vitto- 
rino da Feltre was summoned by the Gon- 
zagas to Mantua in 1424; he was lodged 
in a spacious palace, with galleries, halls, 
and colonades decorated with frescoes of 
playing children. In person he was small, 
quick, and lively — a born schoolmaster, 
whose whole time was spent in devotion 
to his pupils. We are told of the children 
of his patron, how Prince Gonzaga recited 
200 verses of his own composition at the 
age of fourteen, and how Princess Cecilia 
wrote elegant Greek at the age of ten. 
Vittorino died in 1477. He seems to have 
reached the highest point of excellence as 
a practical schoolmaster of the Italian 
Renaissance. Castiglione, on the other 
hand has left us in his Cortigiano the sketch 



ERASMUS. 29 

of a cultivated nobleman in those most 
cultivated days. He shows by what pre- 
cepts and practice the golden youths of 
Verona and Venice were formed, who 
live for us in the plays of Shakespeare as 
models of knightly excellence. For our 
instruction, it is better to have recourse to 
the pages of Erasmus He has written the 
most minute account of his method of 
teaching. The child is to be formed into 
a good Greek and Latin scholar and a 
pious man. He fully grasps the truth that 
improvement must be natural and gradual. 
Letters are to be taught playing. The 
rules of grammar are to be few and short. 
Every means of arousing interest in the 
work is to be fully employed. Erasmus 
is no Ciceronian. Latin is to be taught so 
as to be of use — a living language adapted 
to modern wants. Children should learn 
an art — painting, sculpture, or architec- 
ture. Idleness is above all things to be 
avoided. The education of girls is as nec- 
essary and important as that of boys. Much 
depends upon home influence ; obedience 
must be strict, but not too severe. We 
must take acount of individual peculiari- 
ties, and not force children into cloisters 
against their will. We shall obtain the 
best results by following nature. It is 
easy to see what a contrast this scheme 
presented to the monkish training, — to the 



30 THE REFORMATION. 

routine of useless technicalities enforced 
amidst the shouts of the teachers and the 
lamentations of the taught. 

Still this culture was but for the few. 
Luther brought the schoolmaster into the 
cottage,and laid the foundations of the sys- 
tem which is the chief honor and strength 
of modern Germany, a system by which 
the child of the humblest peasant, by slow 
'but certain gradations, receives the best 
education which the country can afford. 

The precepts of Luther found their way 
into the hefiarts of his countrymen in short, 
^pithy sentences, like the sayings of Poor 
Richard. The purification and widening 
of education went hand in hand with the 
purification of religion, and these claims 
to affection are indissolubly united in the 
minds of his countrymen. Melanchthon, 
from his editions of school books and his 
practical labors in education, earned the 
title of Praeceptor Germaniae. Aristotle 
had been dethroned from his pre-eminence 
in the schools, and Melanchthon attempted 
to supply his place. He appreciated the 
importance of Greek, the terror of the ob- 
scurantists, and is the author of a Greek 
grammar. He wrote elemantary books on 
each department of the trivium — grammar, 
dialectic, and rhetoric. He made some 
way with the studies of the quadrivium, and 
wrote Initia doctrincE Physicce^ a primer of 



LUTHER, MELANCHTHON. 5I 

physical science. He lectured at the uni- 
versity of Wittenberg, and for ten years, 
from 15 19 to 1529, kept a schola privata in 
his own house. Horace was his favorite 
classic. His pupils were taught to learn 
the whole of it by heart, ten lines at a time. 
The tender refined lines of his well-known 
portiaits show clearly the character of the 
painful,accurate scholar, and contrast with 
the burly powerful form of the genial 
Luther. He died in 1560, racked with 
anxiety for the church which he had helped 
to found. If he did nut carry Protestant- 
ism into the heart of the peasant, he at 
least made it acceptable to the intellect of 
the man of letters. 

We now come to the names of three the- 
oretical and practical teachers who have 
exercised and are still exercising a pro- 
found effect over education. The so-called 
Latin school, the parent of the gymnasium 
and the lycee, had spread all over Europe, 
and was especially flourishing in Germany. 
The programmes and time tables in use in 
these establishments have come down to 
us, and we possess notices of the lives 
and labors of many of the earliest teachers. 
It is not difficult to trace a picture of the 
education which the Reformation offered 
to the middle classes of Europe. Ample 
material exists in German histories of ed- 
ucation. We must confine ourselves to 



32 STRASBURG. 

those moments which were of vital influ- 
ence in the development of the science. 
One school stands pre-eminently before 
the rest, situated in that border city on the 
debatable land between France and Ger- 
many, which has known how to combine 
and reconcile the peculiarities of French 
and German culture. Strasbur^, besides 
a school of theology which unites the 
depth of Germany to the clearness and vi- 
vacity of France, educated the gilded youth 
of the i6th century under Sturm, as it 
trained the statesmen and diplomatists of 
the i8th under Koch. John Sturm of 
Strasburg was the friend of Ascham, the 
author of the Bcholemaster^ and thc- 
tutor of Queen Elizabeth. It was Ascham 
who found Lady Jane Gray alone in her 
room at Bradgate bending her neck over 
the page of Plato when all the rest of her 
family were following the chase. Sturm 
was the first great head-master, the pro- 
genitor of Busbys if not of Arnolds. He 
lived and worked till the age of eighty- 
two. He was a friend of all the most dis. 
tinguished men of his age, the chosen rep- 
resentative of the Protestant cause in 
Europe, the ambassador to foreign powers. 
He was believed to be better informed 
than any man of his time of the complica- 
tions of foreign politics. Rarely did aft 
envoy pass from France to Germany with- 



JOHN STURM. 33 

out turning aside to profit by his experi- 
ence. But the chief energies of his life 
were devoted to teaching. He drew his 
scholars from the whole of Europe; Por- 
tugal, Poland, England sent their contin- 
gent to his halls. In 1578, his school 
numbered several thousand students; he 
supplied at once the place of the cloister 
and the castle. What he most insisted up- 
on was the teaching of Latin, not the con- 
versational li?igua frajica of Erasmus, but 
pure, elegant Ciceronian Latinity. He 
may be called the introducer of scholar- 
ship into the schools, a scholarship which 
as yet took little account of Greek. His 
pupils would write elegant letters, deliver 
elegant Latin speeches, be familiar, if not 
with the thoughts, at least with the lan- 
guage of the ancients, would be scholars 
in order that they might be gentlemen. 
Our space will not permit us to trace the 
whole course of his influence, but he is in 
all probability as much answerable as any 
one for the euphuistic refinement which 
overspread Europe in the 16th century, 
and which went far to ruin and corrupt its 
literatures. Nowhere perhaps had he more 
effect than in England. Our older public 
schools, on breaking with the ancient faith, 
looked to Sturm as their model of Protes- 
tant education. His name and example 
became familiar to us by the exertions of 
3 



34 WOLFGANG RATKE. 

his friend Ascham. Westminster, under 
the long reign of Busby, received a form 
wliich was generally accepted as the type 
of a gentleman's education. The Public 
School Commission of 1862, found that the 
lines laid down by the great citizen of 
Strasburg, and copied by his admirers, had 
remained unchanged until within the mem- 
ory of the present generation. Wolfgang 
Ratke or Ratichius was born in Holstein 
in 1571. He anticipated some of the best 
improvements in the method of teaching 
which have been made in modern times. 
He was like many of those who have tried 
to improve existing methods in advance 
of his age, and he was rewarded for his 
labors at Augsburg, Weimar, and Kothen 
by persecution and imprisonment. Can 
we wonder that education has improved 
so slowly when so much pains has been 
taken to silence and extinguish those who 
have devoted themselves to its improve- 
ment ? His chief rules were as follows : 
1. Begin everything with prayer. 2. Do 
everything in order, following the course 
of nature. 3, Onejthing at a time. 4. Of- 
ten repeat the same thing. 5. Teach 
everything first in the mother tongue. 6. 
Proceed from the mother tongue to other 
languages. 7. Teach w^ithout compulsion. 
Do not beat children to make them learn. 
Pupils must love their masters, not hate 



RATKE S CHIEF RULES. 35 

them. Nothing should be learnt by heart. 
Sufficient time should be given to play and 
recreation. Learn one thing before going 
on to another. Do not teach for two hours 
consecutively. 8. Uniformity in teach- 
ing, also in school-books, especially gram- 
mars, which may with advantage be made 
comparative. 9. Teach a thing first, and 
then the reason of it. Give no rules be- 
fore you have given the examples. Teach 
no language out of the grammar, but out 
of authors. 10. Let everything be taught 
by induction and experiment. Most of 
these precepts are accepted by all good 
teachers in the present day; all of them 
are full of wisdom. Unfortunately their 
author saw the faults of the teaching of 
his time more clearly than the means to 
remove them, and he was more successful 
in forming precepts than in carrying them 
out. Notwithstanding these drawbacks, 
he deserves an honorable place among the 
forerunners of a rational education. 

John Amos Comenius was the antithesis 
to Sturm, and a greater man than Ratke. 
Born a Moravian, he passed a wandering 
lite, among the troubles of the Thirty 
Years' War, in poverty and obscurity. But 
his ideas were accepted by the most ad- 
vanced thinkers of the age, notably in 
many respects by our own Milton, and by 
Oxenstiern, the chancellor of Sweden. 



36 JOHN AMOS COMENIUS. 

His school books were spread throughout 
Europe. The 'yanua Li?igua?-um Reservata 
was translated into twelve European and 
several Asiatic languages. His works, 
especially the Didascalia magna^ an encyc- 
lopaedia of the science of education, are 
constantly reprinted at the present day ; 
and the system which he sketched will be 
found to foreshadow the education of the 
future. He was repelled and disgusted by 
the long delays and pedantries of the 
schools. His ardent mind conceived that 
if teachers would but follow nature instead 
of forcing it against its bent, take full ad- 
vantage of the innate desire for activity 
and growth, all men might be able to learn 
all things. Languages should be taught 
as the mother tongue is taught, by conver- 
sations on ordinary topics; pictures, ob- 
ject lessons, should be freely used ; teach- 
ing should go hand in hand with a cheer- 
ful elegant, and happy life. Comenius in- 
cluded in his course the teaching of the 
mother tongue, singing, economy, and pol- 
itics, the history of the world, physical 
geog^raphy, and a knowledge of arts and 
handicrafts. But the principle on which 
he most insisted, which forms a special 
point of his teaching, and in which he is 
followed by Milton, is that the teaching of 
words and things must go together hand 
in hand. When we consider how much 



THE FORE-RUNNER OF PESTALOZZI. 37 

time is spent over new languages, what 
waste of energy is lavished on mere prep- 
aration, how it takes so long to lay a 
foundation that there is no time to rear a 
building upon it, we must conclude that it 
is in the acceptance and development of 
this principle that the improvement of ed- 
ucation will in the future consist. Any 
one who attempts to inculcate this great 
reform will find that its first principles are 
contained in the writings of Comenius. 
But this is not the whole of his claim upon 
our gratitude. He was one of the first ad- 
vocates of the teaching of science in 
schools. His kindness, gentleness, and 
sympathy make him the forerunner of 
Pestalozzi. His general principles of edu- 
cation would not sound strange in the 
treatise of Herbert Spencer. 

The Protestant schools were now the 
best in Europe, and the monkish institu- 
tions were left to decay. Catholics would 
have remained behind in the race if it had 
not been for the Jesuits. Ignatius Loyola 
gave this direction to the order which he 
founded, and the programme of studies, 
which dates from the end of the sixteenth 
century, is in use, with certain modifica- 
tions, in English Jesuit schools at the 
present day. In 1 550 the first Jesuit school 
was opened in Germany ; in 1700 the order 
possessed 612 colleges, 157 normal schools, 



38 THE JESUITS, 

59 noviciates, 340 residences, 2co missions, 
29 professed homes, and 24 universities. 
The college of Clermont had 3000 students 
in 1695. Every Jesuit college was divided 
into two parts, the one for higher the 
other for lower education, — the stndiasupe- 
riora, and the studia inferiora. The sUidia 
ijiferiora^ answering to the modern gym- 
nasium, was divided into five classes. The 
first three were classes of grammar (^rudi- 
mentSy), grammar f accidence^, and syntax, 
the last two humanity and rhetoric. The 
motto of the schools was lege^ scribe^ loquere^ 
— you must learn not only to read and 
write a dead language, but to talk. Purism 
was even more exaggerated that by Sturm. 
No word might be used which did not rest 
upon a special authority. The composi- 
tion of Latin verses was strongly encour- 
aged, and the performance of Latin plays. 
Greek was studied to some extent ; math- 
ematics, geography, music, and the mother 
tongues were neglected. The studia supe- 
riora began with a philosophical course of 
two or three years. In the first year logic 
was taught, in the second the books of 
Aristotle, de cceIo^ the first book de ge7iera' 
tiofie, and the Meteorologica. In the third 
year the second book de generatione. the 
books de anima, a n d t h e Metaphysics . A f t e r 
the completion of the philosophical course 
the pupil studied theojogy for four years. 



WHEREIN THEY EXCELLED. 39 

The Jesuits used to the full the great en- 
gine of emulation. Their classes were di- 
vided into two parts, Romans and Cartha- 
ginians; swords, shields, and lances hung 
on the walls, and were carried off in tri- 
umph as either party claimed the victory 
by a fortunate answer. It would be unfair 
to deny the merits of the education of the 
Jesuits. Bacon speaks of them in more 
than one passage as the revivers of this 
most important art. Quiim talis sis iitinam 
noster esses, Descartes approved of their 
system ; Chateaubriand regarded their sup- 
pression as a calamity to civilization and 
enlightenment. They were probably the 
first to bring the teacher into close con- 
nection with the taught. According to 
their ideal the teacher was neither inclosed 
in a cloister, secluded from his pupils, nor 
did he keep order by stamping, raving, and 
flogging. He was encouraged to apply 
his mind and soul to the mind and soul of 
his pupil ; to study the nature, the dispo- 
sition, the parents of his scholars ; to fol- 
low nature as far as possible, or rather to 
lie in wait for it and discover its weak 
points, and where it could be most easily 
attacked. Doubtless the Jesuits have 
shown a love, devotion, and self-sacrifice 
in education, which is worthy of the high- 
est praise ; no teacher w^ho would compete 
with them can dare do less. On the other 



40 WHEREIN THEY FAILED. 

hand, they are open to grave accusation. 
Their watchful care degenerated into sur- 
veillance, which lay-schools have borrowed 
from them ; their study of nature has led 
them to confession and direction. They 
have tracked out the soul to its recesses, 
that they might slay it there, and generate 
another in its place ; they educated each 
mind according to its powers, that it might 
be a more subservient tool to their own 
purposes. They taught the accomplish- 
ments which' the world loves, but their 
chief object was to amuse the mind 
and stifle inquiry; they engaged Latin 
verses, because they were a convenient 
plaything on which powers might be exer- 
cised which could have been better em- 
ployed in understanding and discussing 
higher subjects ; they were the patrons of 
school plays, of public prizes, declamations, 
examinations, and other exhibitions, in 
which the parents were more considered 
than the boys; they regarded the claims 
of education, not as a desire to be encour- 
aged, but as a demand to be played with 
and propitiated ; they gave the best educa- 
tion of their time in order to acquire con- 
fidence, but they became the chief obstacle 
to the improvement of education ; they 
did not care for enlightenment, but only 
for the influence which they could derive 
from a supposed regard for enlightenment. 



MONTAIGNE. 4I 

Whatever may have been the service of 
Jesuits in past times, we have little to hope 
for them in the improvement of education 
at present. Governments have, on the 
whole, acted wisely by checking and sup- 
pressing their colleges. The ratio studio- 
ru?n is antiquated and difficult to reform. 
In 1831 it was brought more into accord- 
ance with modern ideas by Roothaan, the 
general of the order. Beckx, his succes- 
sor, has, if anything, pursued a policy of 
retrogression. The Italian Government, 
in taking possession of Rome, found that 
the pupils of the CoUegio Romano were 
far below the level of modern require- 
ments. 

It may be imagined that, by this organi- 
zation both Catholic and Protestant were 
apt to degenerate into pedantry, both in 
name and purpose. The schoolmaster had 
a great deal too much the best of it. The 
Latin school was tabulated and organized 
until every half hour of a boy's time was 
occupied; the Jesuit school took posses- 
sion of the pupil body and soul. It was, 
therefore, to be expected that a stand 
should be made for common sense in the 
direction of practice rather than theory, 
ot wisdom instead of learning. Montaigne 
has left us the most delightful utterances 
about education. He says that the faults 
of the education of his day consist in over- 



42 JOHN LOCKE. 

estimating the intellect and rejecting uior- 
rlity, in exaggerating memory and depre- 
ciating useful knowledge. He recom- 
mends a tutor who should draw out the 
pupil's own power and originality, to 
teach how to live well and to die well, to 
enforce a lesson by practice, to put the 
mother tongue before foreign tongues, to 
teach all manly exercises, to educate the 
perfect man. Away with force and com- 
pulsion, with severity and the rod! John 
Locke, more than a hundred years after- 
wards, made a more powerful and system- 
atic attack upon useless knowledge. His 
theory of the origin of ideas led him to as- 
sign great importance to education, while 
his knowledge of the operations of the 
human mind lends a special value to his 
advice. His treatise has received in Eng- 
land more attention than it deserves, partly 
because we have so few books written up- 
on the subject on which he treats. Part of 
his advice is useless at the present day; 
part it would be well to follow, or at any 
rate to consider seriously, especially his 
condemnation of repetition by heart as a 
means of strengthening the memory, and 
of Latin verses and themes. He sets be- 
fore himself the production of the man, 
a sound mind in a sound body. His 
knowledge of medicine gives great value 
to his advice on the earliest education, 



FEATURES OF HIS TREATISE. 43: 

although he probably exaggerates the ben- 
efits of enforced hardships. He recom- 
mends home education without harshness 
or severity of discipline. Emulation is to 
be the chief spring of action; knowledge 
is, far less valuable than a well-trained 
mind. He prizes that knowledge most 
which fits a man for the duties of the 
world, speaking languages, accounts, his- 
tory, law, logic, rhetoric, natural philoso- 
phy. He inculcates the importance of 
drawing, dancing, riding, fencing, and 
trades. The part of his advice which made 
the most impression upon his contempo- 
raries was the teaching of reading and 
arithmetic by well-considered games, the 
discouragement of an undue compulsion 
and punishment, and the teaching of lan- 
guage without the drudgery of grammar. 
In these respects he has undoubtedly an- 
ticipated modern discoveries. He is a 
strong advocate for home education under 
a private tutor, and his bitterness against 
public schools is as vehement as that ot 
Cowper. 

Far more important in the literature of 
this subject than the treatise of Locke is 
the Tractate of Education by Milton, "the 
few observations," as he tells us, "which 
flowered off, and are, as it were, the bur- 
nishings of many studious and contempla- 
tive years spent in the search for civil and 



44 MILTON s "tractate. 

religious knowledge." This essay is ad- 
dressed to Samuel Hartlib, a great friend 
of Comenius, and probably refers to a 
project of establishing a university in 
London. "I will point you out," Milton 
says, "the right path of a virtuous and 
noble education, — laborious, indeed, at first 
ascent, but else so smooth and green and 
full of goodly prospects and melodious 
sounds on every side, that the harp of Or- 
pheus is not more charming. This is to 
be done between twelve and one-and- 
twenty, in an academy containing about a 
hundred and thirty scholars, which shall 
be at once school and university, — not 
needing a remove to any other nouse of 
scholarship except it be some peculiar 
college of law and physics, where they 
mean to be practitioners." The important 
truth enunciated is quite in the spirit of 
Comenius that the learning of things and 
words is to go hand in hand. The curri- 
culum is very large. Latin, Greek, arith- 
metic, geometry, agriculture, geography, 
physiology, physics, trigonometry, forti- 
fication, architecture, engineering, naviga- 
tion, anatomy, medicine, poetry, Italian, 
law both Roman and English, Hebrew, 
with Chaldee and Syriac, history, oratory, 
poetics. But the scholars are not to be 
book-worms. They are to be trained for 
war, both on foot and on horseback, to be 



A NOBLE IDEAL, 45 

practised '*in all the locks and gripes of 
wrestling," they are to "recreate and com- 
pose their travailed spirits with the divine 
harmonies of music heard or learnt " "In 
those vernal seasons of the year when the 
air is calm and pleasant, it were an injury 
and a sullenness against Nature not to go 
out and see her riches, and partake in her 
rejoicing with heaven and earth. I should 
not then be a persuader to them of study- 
ing much then, after two or three years 
that they have well laid their grounds, 
but to ride out in companies with prudent 
and staid guides to all the quarters of the 
land." The whole treatise is full of wis- 
dom, and deserves to studied again and 
again. Visionary as it may appear to^some 
at first sight, if translated into the lan- 
guage of our own day, it will be found to 
abound with sound, practical advice, 
"Only," Milton says in conclusion, "I 
believe that this is not a bow for every 
man to shoot who counts himself a teacher, 
but will require sinews almost equal to 
those which Homer gave Ulysses; yet I am 
persuaded that it may prove much more 
easy in the essay than it now seems at a 
distance, and much more illustrious if 
God have so decided and this age have 
spirit and capacity enough to apprehend." 
Almost while Milton was writing this 
treatise, he might have seen an attempt to 



46 THE JANSENISTS. 

realize something of his ideal in Port 
Royal. What a charm does this name 
awaken ! Yet how few of us have made a 
pilgrimage to that secluded valley ! Here 
we find, for the first time in the modern 
world, the highest gifts of the greatest 
men of a country applied to the business 
of education. Arnauld, Lancelot, Nicole 
did not commence by being educational 
philosophers. They began with a small 
school, and developed their method as 
they proceeded. Their success has seldom 
been surpassed. But a more lasting 
memorial than their pupils are the books 
which they sent out, which bear the name 
■of their cloister. The Poi't Royal Logic, 
Gtne7'al Grammar^ Greek, Latin, Italian, and 
Spanish Grammars, the Garde?i of Greek 
Roots which taught Greek to Gibbon, the 
Port Royal Geometry, and their translations 
of the classics held the first place among 
school books for more than a century. 
The success of the Jansenists was too 
much for the jealousy of the Jesuits. 
Neither piety, nor wit, nor virtue could 
save them. A light was quenched which 
would have given an entirely different 
direction to the education of France and 
of Europe. No one can visit without 
emotion that retired nook which lies hid- 
den among the forests of Versailles, 
•where the old brick dove-cot, the pillars 



AUGUST HERMANN FRANCKE. 47 

of the church, the trees of the desert 
alone remain to speak to us of Pascal, 
Racine, and the Mere Angelique. The 
principles of Port Royal found some sup- 
porters in a later time, in the better days 
of French education before monarchism 
and militarism had crushed the life out of 
the nation. Rollin is never mentioned 
without the epithet bon^ a testimony to his 
wisdom, virtue and simplicity. Fenelon 
may be reckoned as belonging to the same 
school, but he was more fitted to mix and 
grapple with mankind. 

No history of education would be com- 
plete without the name of August Her- 
mann Francke, the founder ot the school 
of Pietists, and of a number of institutions 
which now form almost a suburb in the 
town of Halle to which his labors were 
devoted. The first scenes of his activity 
were Leipzig and Dresden; but in 1692, 
at the age of 29, he was made pastor of 
Glancha near Halle, and professor in the 
newly established university. Three years 
later he commenced his poor school with 
a capital of seven guelders which he found 
in the poor box of his house. At his death 
in 1727 he left behind him the following 
institutions: — a paedagogium, or training 
college, with eighty-two scholars and sev- 
enty teachers receiving education, and 
attendants ; the Latin school of the orphan 



48 HALLE. 

asylum, with three inspectors, thirty-two 
teachers, four hundred scholars, and ten 
servants; the German town schools, with 
four inspectors, ninety-eight teachers, 
eight female teachers, and one thousand 
seven hundred and twenty-five boys and 
girls. The establishment for orphan chil- 
dren contained one hundred boys, thirty- 
four girls, and ten attendants. A cheap 
public dining-table was attended by two 
hundred and fifty-five students and three 
hundred and sixty poor scholars, and be- 
sides this there was an apothecary's and a 
bookseller's shop. Francke's principles 
of education were strictly religious. He- 
brew was included in his curriculum, but 
the heathen classics were treated with 
slight respect. The Hojnilies of Macarius 
were read in the place of Thucydides. As 
might be expected, the rules laid down for 
discipline and moral training breathed a 
spirit of deep affection and symathy, 
Francke's great merit, however, is to have 
left us a model of institutions by which 
children of all ranks may receive an edu- 
cation to fit them for any position in life. 
The Franckesche Stiftungen are still, next 
to the university, the centre of the intel- 
lectual life of Halle, and the different 
schools which they contain give instruc- 
tion to 3,500 children. 

We now come to the book which has 



ROUSSEAU S EMILE. 49 

had moie influence than any other on the 
education of later times. The Emile of 
Rousseau was published in 1762. It pro- 
duced an astounding: effect throughout 
Europe. Those were days when the whole 
cultivated world vibrated to any touch of 
new philosophy. French had superseded 
Latin as the general medium of thought, 
French learning stood in the same rela- 
tion to the rest of Europe as German learn- 
ing does now : and any discovery of 
D'Alembert, Rousseau, or Maupertuis 
travelled with inconceivable speed from 
Versailles to Schonbrunn, from the Spree 
to the Neva. Kant in his distant home of 
Konigsberg broke for one day through his 
habitS; more regular than the town clock, 
and stayed at home to study the new rev- 
elation. The burthen of Rousseau's mes- 
sage was nature, such a nature as never did 
and never will exist, but still a name for an 
ideal worthy of our struggles. He revolted 
against the false civilization which he saw 
around him ; he was penetrated with sor- 
row at the shams of government and 
society, at the misery of the poor existing 
side by side with the heartlessness of the 
rich. The child should be the pupil of 
nature. He lays great stress on the earliest 
education. The first year of life is in 
every respect the most important. Nature 
must be closely followed. The child's 
4 



50 ROUSSEAU. 

tears are petitions which should be grant- 
ed. The naughtiness of children comes 
from weakness ; make the child strong and 
he will be good. Children's destructive- 
ness is a form of activity. Do not be too 
anxious to make children talk; be satisfied 
with a small vocabulary. Lay aside all 
padded caps and baby jumpers. Let chil- 
dren learn to walk by learning that it hurts 
them to fall. Do not insist too much on 
the duty of obedience as on the necessity 
of submission to natural laws. Do not 
argue too much with children ; educate the 
heart to wish for right actions ; before ail 
things study nature. The chief moral 
principle is do no one harm, Emile is to be 
taught by the real things of life, by obser- 
vation and experience. At twelve years 
old he is scarcely to know what a book is; 
to be able to read and write at fifteen is 
quite enough. We must first make him a 
man, and that chiefly by athletic exercises. 
Educate his sight to measure, count, and 
weigh accurately ; teach him to draw ; tune 
his ear to time and harmony; give him 
simple food, but let him eat as much as he 
likes. Thus at twelve years old Emile is 
a real child of nature. His carriage and 
bearing are fair and confident, his nature 
open and candid, his speech simple and to 
the point ; his ideas are few but clear; he 
knows nothing by learning, much by ex- 



EMILE. 51 

perience. He has read deeply in the book 
of nature. His mind is not on his tongue 
but in his head. He speaks only one lan- 
guage, but knows what he is saying, and 
can do what he cannot describe. Routine 
and custom are unknown to him; authority 
and example affect him not : he does what 
he thinks right. He understands nothing 
of duty and obedience, but he will do what 
you ask him, and will expect a similar ser- 
vice of vou in return. His strength and 
body are fully developed; he is first-rate 
at running, jumping, and judging dis- 
tances Should he die at this age he will 
so far have lived his life. From twelve to 
fifteen Emile's practical education is to 
continue. He is still to avoid books which 
teach not learning itself but to appear 
learned. He is to be taught and to prac- 
tise some handicraft. Half the value of 
education is to waste time wisely, to tide 
over dangerous years with safety, until 
the character is better able to stand temp- 
tation. At fifteen a new epoch commences. 
The passions are awakened ; the care of 
the teacher should now redouble; he should 
never leave the helm. Emile having grad- 
ually acquired the love of himself and of 
those immediately about him, will begin 
to love his kind. Now is the time to 
teach him history, and the machinery of 
society, the world as it is and as it might 



52 ROUSSEAU. 

be. Still an encumbrance of useless and 
burdensome knowledge is to be avoided. 
Between this age and manhood Emile 
learns all that it is necessary for him to 
know„ It is, perhaps, strange that a book 
in many respects so wild and fantastic 
should have produced so great a practical 
effect. In pursuance of its precepts, chil- 
dren went about naked, were not allowed 
to read, and when they grew up wore the 
simplest clothes, and cared for little learn- 
ing except the siudy of nature and Plu- 
tarch. The catastrophe of the French 
Revolution has made the importance of 
Emile less apparent to us. Much of the 
heroism of that time is doubtless due to 
the exaltation produced by the sweeping 
away of abuses, and the approach of a 
brighter age. But we must not forget that 
the first generation of Emile was just 
thirty years old in 1792; that many of the 
Girondins, the Marseillais, the soldiers and 
generals of Carnot and Napoleon had been 
bred in that hardy school. There is no 
more interesting chapter in the history of 
education than the tracing back of epochs 
of special activity to the obscure source 
from which they arose. Thus the Whigs 
of the Reform Bill sprang from the wits 
of Edinburgh, the heroes of the Rebellion 
from the divines who translated the Bible, 
the martyrs of the Revovution from the 
philosophers of the Encyclopaedia. 



BASEDOW. 53 

The teaching of Rousseau found its 
practical expression in the philanthropin of 
Dessau, a school founded by Basedow, the 
friend of Goethe and Lavater, one of the 
two prophets between whom the world- 
child sat bodkin in that memorable post- 
chaise journey of which Goethe has left us 
an account. The principles of the teach- 
ing given in this establishment were very 
much those of Comenius, the combination 
of words and things. An amusing ac- 
count of the instruction given in this 
school, which at this time consisted of 
only thirteen pupils, has come down to us, 
a translation of which is given in the ex- 
cellent work of Mr. Quick on educational 
reformers. The little ones have gone 
through the oddest performances. They 
play at "word of command." Eight or ten 
stand in a line like soldiers, and Herr 
Wolke is officer. He gives the word 
in Latin, and they must do whatever he 
says. For instance when he says "clau- 
ditc oculos," they all shut their eyes ; 
when he says" circumspicite," they look 
about them; " imitamini sutorem," they 
draw the waxed thread like cobblers. 
Herr Wolke gives a thousand different 
commands in the drollest fashion. An- 
other game, "the hiding game," may also 
be described. Some one writes a name 
and hides it from the children, the name 



54 BASEDOW. 

of some part of the body, or of a plant or 
animal, or metal, and the children guess 
what it is. Whoever guesses right gets an 
apple or a piece of cake ; one of the visit- 
ors wrote " intestina," and told the chil- 
dren it was part of the body. Then the 
guessing began, one guessed caput, another 
nasus, another os, another manus, pes^ 
digiti, pectus, and so forth for a longtime, 
but one of them hits it at last. Next Herr 
Wolke wrote the name of a beast or quad- 
ruped, then came the guesses, leo, ursus, 
camelus, elephas, and so on, till one guess- 
ed right it was mus. Then a town was 
written, and they guessed Lisbon, Madrid, 
Paris, London, till a child won with St. 
Petersburg. They had another game 
which was this. Herr Wolke gave the 
command in Latin, and they imitated the 
noises of different animals, and made the 
visitors laugh till they were tired. They 
roared like lions, crowed like cocks, mew- 
ed like cats, just as they were bid. Yet 
Kant found a great deal to praise in this 
school, and spoke of its influence as one 
of the best hopes of the future, and as "the 
.only school where the teachers had liberty 
to act according to their own methods and 
schemes, and where they were in free 
communication both among themselves 
and with all learned men throughout 
Germany." 



SALZMANN, PESTALOZZI. 55 

A more successful laborer in the same 
school was Salzmann, who bought the 
property of Schnepfenthal, near Gotha, in 
1784, and established a school there, which 
still exists as a flourishing institution. He 
gave full scope to the doctrines of the phil- 
anthropists; the limits of learning were 
enlarged; study became a pleasure instead 
of a pain ; scope was given for healthy ex- 
ercise ; the school became light, airy, and 
cheerful. A charge of superficiality and 
weakness was brought against this method 
of instruction; but the gratitude which our 
generation of teachers owes to the un- 
bounded love and faith of these devoted 
men cannot be denied or refused. The 
end of the i8th century saw a great devel- 
opment given to classical studies. The 
names ot Cellarius, Gesner, Ernesti, and 
Fleyne are perhaps more celebrated as 
scholars than as schoolmasters. To them 
we owe the great importance attached to 
the study of the classics, both on the Con- 
tinent and in England. They brought in- 
to the schools the philology which F. A. 
Wolf had organized for the universities. 
Pestalozzi, on the other hand, was com- 
pletely and entirely devoted to education. 
His greatest merit is that he set an ex- 
ample of absolute self-abnegation, that he 
lived with his pupils, played, starved, and 
suffered with them, and clung to their 



56 PESTALOZZI. 

minds and hearts with an aftectionate sym- 
pathy which revealed to him every minute 
difference of character and disposition. 
Pestalozzi was born at Zurich in 1746. 
His father died when he was young, and he 
was brought up by his mother. His earli- 
est years were spent in schemes for im- 
proving the condition of the people. The 
death of his friend Bluntschli turned him 
from political schemes, and induced him to 
devote himself to education. He married 
at 23, and bought a piece of waste land in 
Aargau, where he attempted the cultivation 
of madder. Pestalozzi knew nothing of 
business, and the plan failed. Before this 
he had opened his farm-house as a school ; 
but in 1780 he had to give this up also. 
His first book published at this time was 
The Evenijig Hours of a Hermit^ a series of 
aphorisms and reflections. This was fol- 
lowed by his masterpiece, Leo7iard and Ger- 
trude^ an account of the gradual reforma- 
tion, first of a household, and then of a 
whole village, by the efforts of a good and 
devoted woman. It was read with avidity 
in Germany, and the name of Pestalozzi 
was rescued from obscurity. His attempts 
to follow up this first literary success were 
failures. The French invasion of Switzer- 
land in 1798 brought into relief his truly 
heroic character. A number of children 
were left in Canton Unterwalden on the 



PESTALOZZI. 57 

shores of the Lake of Luzerne without 
parents, home, food, or shelter. Pestaloz- 
zi collected a number of them into a de- 
serted convent, and spent his energies in 
reclaiming them. " I was," he says, "from 
morning till evening, almost alone in their 
midst. Everything which was done for 
their body or soul proceeded from my 
hand. Every assistance, every help in time 
of need, every teaching which they re- 
ceived came immediately from me. My 
hand lay in their hand, my eye rested on 
their eye, my tears flowed with theirs, and 
my laughter accompanied theirs. They 
were out of the world, they were out of 
Stanz ; they were with me, and I was 
with them. Their soup was mine ; their 
drink was mine. I had nothing; I 
had no housekeeper, no friend, no 
servants around me ; I had them alone. 
Were they well, I stood in their midst ; 
were they ill, I was at their side. I slept 
in the middle of them. I was the last who 
went to bed at night, the first who rose in 
the morning. Even in bed I prayed and 
taught with them until they were asleep, — 
they wished it to be so." Thus he passed 
the winter; but in June, 1799, the building 
was required by the French for a hospital, 
and the children were dispersed. We 
have dwelt especially on this episode ot 
Pestalozzi's life, because in this devotion 



58 PESTALOZZI. 

lay his strength. In 1801 he gave an ex- 
position of his ideas on education in the 
book How Gertrude teaches her Children. 
His method is to proceed from the easier 
to the more difficult — to begin with ob- 
servation, to pass from observation to con- 
sciousness, trom consciousness to speech. 
Then come measuring, drawing, writing, 
numbers, and so reckoning. In 1799 he 
had been enabled to establish a school at 
Burgdorf, where he remained till 1804. In 
1802, he went as deputy to Paris, and did 
his best to interest Napoleon in a scheme 
of national education ; but the great con- 
queror said that he could not trouble him- 
self with the alphabet. In 1805 he removed 
to Yverdun on the Lake of Neufchatel, and 
for twenty years worked steadily at his 
task. He was visited by all who took in- 
terest in education — Talleyrand, Capo 
d'Istria, and Madame de Stael. He was 
praised by Wilhelm von Humboldt and by 
Fichte. His pupils included Ramsauer, 
Delbru, Blochmann, Carl Ritter, Froebel, 
and Zeller. About 1815 dissensions broke 
out among the teachers of the school, and 
Pestalozzi's last ten years were chequered 
by weariness and sorrow. In 1825 he re- 
tired to Neuhof, the home of his youth; 
and after writing the adventures of his 
life, and his last work, the Swa^i's Song, he 
did in 1827. As he said himself, the real 



EDUCATION AS A SCIENCE. 59 

work of his life did not lie in Burgdorf or 
in Yverdun, the products rather of his 
weakness than of his strength. It lay in 
the principles of education which he prac- 
tised, the development of his observation, 
the training of the whole man, the sympa- 
thetic application of the teacher to the 
taught, of which he left an example in his 
six months' labors at Stanz. He showed 
what truth there was in the principles of 
Comenius and Rousseau, in the union of 
training with information, and the sub- 
missive following of nature ; he has had 
the deepest effect on all branches of edu- 
cation since his time, and his influence is 
far from being exhausted. 

The Emile of Rousseau was the point of 
departure for an awakened interest in edu- 
cational theories which has continued unto 
the present day. Few thinkers of emi- 
nence during the last hundred years have 
failed to offer their contributions more or 
less directly on this subject. Poets like 
Richter, Herder and Goeihe, philosophers 
such as Kant, Fichte, Hegel, Schleier- 
macher and Schopenhauer, psychologists 
such as Herbart and Beneke, have left 
directions for our guidance. Indeed, dur- 
ing this time the science of education, or 
paedagogics, as the Germans call it, may 
have been said to have come into existence. 
It has attracted but little attention in Eng- 



€o JEAN PAUL, GOETHE, CARLYLE. 

land ; but it is an important subject of 
study at all German universities, and we 
may hope that the example given by the 
•establishment of chairs of education in the 
Scotch universities may soon be followed 
by the other great centres of instruction 
in Great Britain. Jean Paul called his 
book Levana, after the Roman goddess to 
whom the father dedicated his new-born 
-child, in token that he intended to rear it 
to manhood. He lays great stress on the 
preservation of individuality of character, 
•a merit which he possessed himself in so 
high a degree. The second part of Wil- 
helm Meister is in the main a treatise upon 
•education. The essays of Carlyle have 
made us familiar with the mysteries of the 
paedagogic province, the solemn gestures 
of the three reverences, the long cloisters 
which contain the history of God's deal- 
ings with the human race. The most 
characteristic passage is that which de- 
scribes the father's return to the country 
of education after a year's absence. As he 
is riding alone, .wondering in what guise 
•he will meet his son, a multitude of horses 
rush by at full gallop. " The monstrous 
hurly-burly whirls past the wanderer; a 
fair boy among the keepers looks at him 
in surprise, pulls in, leaps down, and 
embraces his father." He then learns that 
an agricultural lite had npt suited his son, 



JACOTOT. 6r 

that the superiors had discovered that he 
was fond of animals, and had set him to 
that occupation for which nature had 
destined him. 

The system of Jacotot has aroused great 
interest in this country. Its author was 
born at Dijon in 1770. In 1815 he retired 
to Louvain and became professor there, 
and director of the Belgian military 
school. He died in 1840. His method of 
teaching is based on three principles : 

1. All men liave an equal intelligence. 

2. Every man has received from God the 
faculty of being able to instruct himself. 

3. Every thing is in everything. 

The first of these principles is certainly 
wrong, although Jacotot tried to explain 
it by asserting that, although men had the 
same intelligence, they differed widely in 
the will to make use of it. Still it is im- 
portant to assert that nearly all men are 
capable of receiving some intellectual edu- 
cation, provided the studies to which they 
are directed are wide enough to engage 
their faculties, and the means taken to in- 
terest them are sufficiently ingenious. 
The second principle lays down that it is 
more necessary to stimulate the pupil to 
learn for himself, than to teach him didac- 
tically. The third principle explains the 
process which Jacotot adopted. To one 



62 BELL, LANCASTER. 

learning a language for the first time he 
would give a short passage of a few lines, 
and encourage the pupil to study first the 
words, then the letters, then the grammar, 
then the full meaning of the expressions, 
until by iteration and accretion a single 
paragraph took the place of an entire 
literature. Much may be effected by this 
method in the hands of a skilful teacher, 
but a charlatan might make it an excuse 
for ignorance and neglect. 

Among those who have improved the 
methods of teaching, w^e must mention 
Bell and Lancaster, the joint-discoverers 
of the method of mutual instruction, which, 
if it has not effected everything which its 
founders expected of it, has produced the 
system of pupil-teachers which is common 
in our schools. Froebel also deserves an 
honorable place as the founder of the Kin- 
dergarten, a means of teaching young 
children by playing and amusement. His 
plans, which have a far wider significance 
than this limited development of them, are 
likely to be fruitful of results to future 
workers. 

The last English writers on education 
are Mr. Herbert Spencer and Mr. Alexan- 
der Bain, the study of whose writings will 
land us in those regions ot pedagogics 
which have been most recently explored. 
We need not follow Mr. Spencer into his 



HERBERT SPENCER. 6;^ 

defence of science as the worthiest object 
of study, or in his rules for moral and 
physical training, except to say that they 
are sound and practical. In writing of 
intellectual education, he insists that we 
shall attain the best results by closely 
studying the development of the mind, and 
availing ourselves of the whole amount of 
force which nature puts at our disposal. 
The mind of every being is naturally act- 
ive and vigorous, indeed it is never at rest. 
But for its healthy growth it must have 
something to work upon, and, therefore, 
the teacher must watch its movements 
with the most sympathetic care, in order 
to supply exactly that food which it re- 
quires at any particular time. In this 
way a much larger cycle of attainments 
can be compassed than by the adoption of 
any programme or curriculum, however 
carefully drawn up. It is no good to teach 
what is not remembered ; the strength of 
memory depends on attention, and atten- 
tion depends upon interest. To teach with- 
out interest is to work like Sisyphus and 
the Danaides. Arouse interest if you can, 
rather by high means than by low means. 
But it is a saving of power to make use of 
interest which you have already existing:, 
and which, unless dried up or distorted by 
injudicious violence, will naturally lead 
the mind into all the knowledge which it 



64 ALEXANDER BAIN. 

is capable of receiving. Therefore, never 
from the first force a child's attention ; 
leave off a study the moment it becomes 
wearisome, never let a child do what it 
does not like, only take care that when its 
liking is in activity a choice of good as 
well as evil shall be given to it. 

Mr. Bain's writings on education, which 
are contained in some articles in the Fort- 
nightly Revieiv, and in two articles in Mind 
(^Nos. V. and vii.^ are extremely valuable. 
Perhaps the most interesting part of them 
consists in his showing how what may be 
called the " correlation of forces in man " 
helps us to a right education. From this 
we learn that emotion may be transformed 
into intellect, that sensation may exhaust 
the brain as much as thought, and we may 
infer that the chief duty ot the schoolmas- 
ter is to stimulate the powers of each brain 
under his charge to the fullest activity, and 
to apportion them in that ratio which will 
best conduce to the most complete and 
harmonious development of the individual. 

It seems to follow from this sketch of 
the history of education that, in spite of 
the great advances which have been made 
of late years, the science of education is 
still far in advance of the art. Schoolmas- 
ters are still spending their best energies 
in teaching subjects which have been uni- 
versally condemned by educational reform- 



LITERATURE OF EDUCATION. 65 

ers for the last two hundred years. The ed- 
ucation of every public school is a farrago 
of rules, principles, and customs derived 
from every age of teaching, from the most 
modern to the most remote. It is plain 
that the science and art of teaching will 
never be established on a firm basis until 
it is organized on the model of the sister 
art of medicine. We must pursue the 
patient methods of induction by which 
other sciences have reached the stature of 
maturity ; we must discover some means 
of registering and tabulating results ; we 
must invent a phraseology and nomencla- 
ture which will enable results to be accu- 
rately recorded; we must place education 
in its proper position among the sciences 
of observation. A philosopher who should 
succeed in doing this would be venerated 
by future ages as the creator of the art of 
teaching. 

It only remains now to give some ac- 
count of the very large literature of the 
subject. 

The history of education was not inves- 
tigated till the beginning of the present 
century, and since then little original re- 
search has been made except by Germans. 
Whilst acknowedging our great obliga- 
tions to the German historians, we cannot 
but regret that all the investigations have 
belonged to the same nation. For in- 
5 



66 VALUABLE WORKS. 

Stance, one of the best treatises on educa- 
tion written in the i6th century is Mul- 
caster's Positions^ which has never been re- 
printed, and is now a literary curiosity. 

Mangelsdorf and Ruhkopf attempted 
histories of e.-\ication at the end of the 
last century, but the first work of note 
was F. H. Ch. Schwarz's Gesehichte d. Er- 
ziehung (i^iT,). A. H, Niemeyer, a very 
influential writer, was one of the first to 
insist on the importance of making use of 
all that has been handed down to us, and 
with this practical object in view he has 
given us an Ueberblick der allgemeiiien Ges- 
ehichte der Erziehiing. Other writers fol- 
lowed ; but from the time of its appearance 
till within the last few years, by far the 
most readable and the most read work on 
the history of education was that of Karl 
von Raumer. Raumer, however, is too 
chatty and too religious to pass for "wis- 
senschaftlich," and the standard history is 
now that of Karl Schmidt. The Roman 
Catholics have not been content to adopt 
the works of Protestants, but have histo- 
ries of their own. These are the very 
pleasing sketches of L. Kellner and the 
somewhat larger history by Stoeckl. 
When we come to writers who have pro- 
duced sketches or shorter histories, we v 
find the list in Germany a very long one. 
Among the best books of this kind are 



LITERATURE OF EDUCATION. 67 

Fried. Dittes's Geschichte and D rose's Pad- 
agogische Characterbilder. An account of 
this literature will be found in J. Chr. G. 
Schumann's paper among the Padagogische 
Studien, edited by Dr. Reiss, For biogra- 
phies the paedagogic cyclopaedias may be 
consulted, of which the first is the Encyk- 
lopadie des gesammten E7'ziehungswesens of 
K. A. Schmidt, a great work in ii or 12 
vols, not yet completed, although the sec- 
ond edition of the early vols, are already 
announced. The Roman Catholics have 
also begun a large encyclopaedia edited by 
Rolfus and Pfister. No similar work has 
been published in France, but a Cyclopcedia 
of Education in one volume has lately been 
issued in New York (^Steiger, — the editors 
are Kiddle and SchemJ, and in this there 
are articles by English as well as Ameri- 
can writers. In French the Esguisse d'un 
systeme complet d' Education^ by Th. Fritz, 
fStrasburg, 1841 J, has a sketch of the his- 
tory, which as a sketch is worth notice. 
Jules Paroz has written a useful little His- 
toire which would have been more valuable 
if it had been longer. 

In English, though we have no investi- 
gators of the history of education, we have 
a fairly large literature on the subject, but 
it belongs almost exclusively to the United 
States. The great work of Henry Barn- 
ard, the American yournal of Education^ in 



68 LITERATURE OF EDUCATION. 

25 vols., has valuable papers on almost 
every part of our subject, many of them 
translated from the German, but there are 
also original papers on our old English 
educational writers and extracts from their 
works. This is by far the most valuable 
work in our language on the history of 
education. The small volumes published 
in America with the title of *' History of 
Education " do not deserve notice. In 
England may be mentioned the article on 
education by Mi. James Mill, published in 
the early editions of the Eticyclopoidia Bri- 
tannica^ and Mr. R. H. Quick's most excel- 
lent Essays o?i Educational Reformers^ pub- 
lished in 1868. Since then Mr. Leitch of 
Glasgow has issued a volume called Prac- 
tical Educationists^ which deals with English 
and Scotch reformers, as well as with Co- 
menius and Pestalozzi. Now that profes- 
sorships of education have been established 
we may hope for some original research. 
The first professor appointed was the late 
Joseph Payne, a name well-known to those 
among us who have studied the theory of 
education. The professorship was started 
by the College of Preceptors. At Edin- 
burgh and at St. Andrews professors have 
since been elected by the Bell Trustees. 

Valuable reports as to the state of edu- 
cation in the various countries that pos- 
sess a national system were presented to 



PUBLIC EDUCATION. 69 

the English Schools Inquiry Commission 
in 1867 and 1868, by inspectors specially 
appointed to investigate the subject. The 
reports on the Common School System of 
the United States and Canada, by the Rev. 
James Fraser, on the Burgh Schools in 
Scotland by D. R. Fearon, and on Sec- 
ondary Education in France, Germany, 
Switzerland and Italy, by Matthew Arnold, 
are included in Parliamentary Papers 
[3857], 1867, and [3966 V.]. 1868. fo^Bj 

Law Relating to Education. 
To the foregoing historical statement 
may be added some account of the different 
systems of education administed by statute 
in the United Kingdom : — 

England. — Until quite recently there was 
no public provision for education in Eng- 
land, and even now it is only the elemen- 
tary education of the people that can be 
said to be regulated by law. Parliament 
has indeed taken cognizance of the institu- 
tions founded for the higher education. 
The universities and the endowed schools 
have been enabled by various statutes to 
adapt themselves more completely to the 
wants of the times ; but they still retain 
their character ot local, and one might 
almost say private, corporations. Their 
administration is subject to the control of 
no state authority, and in districts where 



7© PUBLIC EDUCATION. 

such institutions do not exist there is no 
public provision for supplementing the 
deficiency. Elementary education, until 
the Act of 1870, was in the same way de- 
pendent on voluntary enterprise or casual 
endowment. 

The first approach to a public system of 
education was by means of grants in aid of 
private schools, administered by a com- 
mittee of Privy Council. This system is 
not superseded by the Education Act of 
1870, but means are taken to ensure the 
existence in every school district of a 
" sufficient amount of accommodation in 
public elementary schools." The school 
district is the borough or parish, except 
in the case of London and Oxford. When 
the amount of school accommodation in a 
district is insufficient, and the deficiency 
is not supplied as required by the Act, a 
school board shall be formed and shall 
supply such deficiency. Every elementary 
school is a public school in the sense of 
the Act if it is conducted according to the 
regulations in section 7, which in sub- 
stance are : — 

1. It shall not be required, as a condition of any 
child being admitted into, or continuing in the 
school, that he shall attend or abstain from attend- 
ing any Sunday School or any place of religious 
worship, or that he shall attend any religious ob- 
servance or any instruction in religious subjects, in' 
the school or elsewhere, from which observance oir 



ENGLAND. 7I 

instruction he may be witlidrawn by his parents, or 
that he shall, it withdrawn by his parents, attend the 
school on any day set apart tor religious observance 
by the religious body to which his parents belong. 

2. Time for religious observance or instruction in 
the school must be at the beginning or end of school 
meeting, and mnst be shown in a time table con- 
spicuously posted in the school. 

3. School must be open to inspection, except that 
the inspector is not to inquire into religious knowl- 
edge. 

4. School must be conducted in accordance with 
the conditions required to obtain a parliamentary 
grant. 

When the Education Department are 
satisfied after inquiry that the supply of 
public elementary schools as thus defined 
is in any district insufficient, they may 
cause a school board to be formed as thev 
may also (ij when application is made to 
them to that effect ,by the persons who 
would be the electors if there were a 
school board (^in a borough by councily),. 
and (2) when they are satisfied that the 
managers of an elementary school are un- 
willing or unable to maintain it, and by its 
discontinuance the supply for the district 
will become insufficient. The body of the 
Act describes the constitution, powers,, 
duties, and revenues of school boards, as 
in the following brief summary : — 

1. Gonsiihition. — The school board is a corporation 
with perpetual succession and common seal, and 
m)wer to hold land without license in mortmain. It 



72 PUBLIC EDUCATION. 

is elected by the burgesses in a borough, and by the 
rate-payers in a parish, each voter having a number 
of voles equal to the number of vacancies, having 
the right to give all or any number of such votes to 
any one candidate, and to distribute them as he 
pleases. The number of members varies from 5 to 
15 as may be determined. The London school 
board is elected under special regulations. 

3. Pozvers and Duties. — Every school board, for 
the purpose of providing sufficient public school ac- 
commodation for their district, may provide or im- 
prove school-houses and supply school apparatus, 
etc., and purchase or take on lease any land or any 
right over land. Section 20 contains regulations 
under which the compulsory purchase of sites may 
be made. The schools provided by the board must 
comply with the following conditions: — CS.) They 
must be public elementary schools, in the sense 
defined above; C^.) No religious catechism or re- 
ligious formulary, which is distinctive of any par- 
ticular denomination, shall be taught in the schools. 
The board may delegate their powers (^except that 
of raising money^ to managers. Any breach oi 
these regulations may subject the board to being de- 
clared in default by the Education Department, who 
will thereupon nominate a new board. The fees of 
children attending board schools are to be fixed by 
the board, with the consent of the Department, but 
the board may remit fees on account of poverty for 
a renewable period not exceeding six months, and 
it is expressly declared that '' such remission shall 
not be deemed to be parochial relief" given to the 
parent. Further, free schools mav be established 
where the Education Department are satisfied that 
the poverty of the inhabitants is such as to render 
them necessary. Section 25 enables the board to 
pay the fees of poor children attending any public- 
elementary school, but " no such payment shall be. 
made or refused on condition of the child attending 



ENGLAND. 73 

any public elementary school other than such as 
may be selected by the parent (sic), and such pay- 
ment shall not be deemed to be parochial relief." 
This clause, which excited a vast amount of opposi- ; 
tion in Parliament, was repealed by 39 and 40 Vict. ' 
c 59 ^see infra). 

3. Revenues. — The expenses of the board are to be 
paid from a fund called the school fund, constituted 
primarily by the fees of the children, moneys pro- 
vided by Parliament, or raised by loan, or received 
in any other way, and supplemented by the rates, to 
be levied by the rating ruthority. In providing 
buildings, etc., the board may borrow money so as 
to spread the payment over several years, not ex- 
ceeding fifty. (^See, as to this power, Elementary 
Education Act 1873, Sec. 10^. 

School boards may by a by-law require the parents 
of all children between five and thirteen to attend 
school, and it is a reasonable excuse (\) that the 
child is receiving efficient instruction in some other 
manner, or (%) is prevented by sickness, or (Z) that 
there is no public elementary school within such 
distance not exceeding three miles as the by-laws 
may prescribe. Breaches of any such by-law may 
be recovered in a summary manner, but the penalty 
shall not exceed five shilings including costs. 

Finally, it is provided that in future no parliament- 
ary grant shall be made to any school which does not 
come within the definition of " public elementary 
school in the Act."^ Such grant shall not be made in 
respect of religious instruction, and shall not exceed 
in any case the income of the school from other 
sources. No connection with a religious denomi- 
nation is necessar}', and no preference is to be given . 
— — — — ^— . ^ 

^ " Elementary school " is defined to be one in 
which elementary education is the principal part of 
the education there given, and at which the fees do , 
not exceed ninepence per week. 



74 PUBLIC EDUCATION. 

to a school on account of its being or not being a 
board school. Otherwise the minutes of the Com- 
mittee of Council govern the administration of the 
grant, such minutes to lie one month on the table of 
both Houses of Parliament before coming into force. 
The Elementary Education Act, 1873, amends the 
Act of 1870 in several particulars not necessary to 
be specified here. 

The Elementary Education Act, 1876, 
which came into operation on the first of 
January, 1877, declares that it shall be the 
duty of the parent of every child (^meaning 
thereby a child between the ages of five 
and fourteen^ to cause such child to re- 
ceive efficient elementary instruction in 
reading, writing, and arithmetic, — the duty 
to be enforced by the orders and penalties 
specified in the Act. The employment of 
children under the age of ten, or over that 
age without a certificate of proficiency or 
of previous due attendance at a certified 
efficient school, is prohibited unless the 
child is attending school in accordance 
with the Factory Acts, or by by-law under 
the Education Acts. Section 10 substi- 
tutes for section 25 of the Act of 1870 the 
following : — 

"The parent, not being a pauper, of any child 
who is unable by reason of poverty to pay the ordi- 
nary fee for such child at a public elementary school 
or any part of such fee, may apply to the guardians 
having jurisdiction in the parish in which he resides ; 
and it shall be the duty of such guardians, if satisfied 
of such inability, to pay the said fee, not exceeding 



SCOTLAND. 75 

threepence per week, or such part thereof as he is,, 
in the opinion ol the guardians, so unable to pay." 

This payment subjects the parent to no 
disqualification or disability, and he is en- 
titled to select the school. The following 
new regulations are made as to the parlia- 
mentary grant. A child obtaining before 
the age ot eleven a certificate of proficiency 
and of due attendance, as in the Act men- 
tioned, may have his school fees for the 
next three years paid for him by the Edu- 
cation Department — such school fees to be 
calculated as school-pence. ' The grant is 
no longer to be reduced by its excess 
above the income of the school, unless it 
exceeds 17s. 6d. per child in average at- 
tendance, but shall not exceed that amount 
except by the same sum by which the in- 
come of the school, other than the grant, 
exceeds it. Special grants may be made 
to places in which the population is small. 
Other clauses relate to industrial schools,, 
administrative provisions, etc. 

Scotland. — Previous to the Education 
(^Scotlandj Act of 1872, the public ele- 
mentary education rested on the old paro- 
chial system, supplemented in more recent 
times by the parliamentary grants from 
the Committee of Council on Education. 
Under the old law the heritors in every> 
parish were bound to provide a school- 
house, and to contribute the schoolmaster's. 



76 PUBLIC EDUCATION. 

salary, half of which, however, was legally 
chargeable on tenants.^ 

The Education Act of 1872 establishes 
for a limited number of years a Board of 
Education for Scotland, to be responsible 
to the Scotch Education Department of 
the Privy Council, on which its functions 
are ultimately to devolve. The board 
makes an annual report to the department. 

A school board must be elected in every 
parish and burgh as defined in the Act. 
The number Qf members (^between five 
and fifteen^ is fixed by the Board of Edu- 
cation, and no teacher in a public school 
is eligible. The election is by cumulative 
vote, and disputed elections are to be 
settled by the sheriff. The school board 
is a body corporate. Existing parish, 
burgh, and other schools, established under 
former Acts, are to be handed over to the 
school board. 

The school board, acting under the 
Board of Education, shall provide a suffi- 
cient supply of school accommodation, 
and in determining what additional 
amount is necessary, existing efficient 
schools are to be taken into account, 

^ The following are the Acts relating to educathDn 
in Scotland recited in the Education Act of 1870 : — 
Act of Scots Parliament. 1696, (1st of King William) ; 
43 Geo. III. c. 54 ; 1 and 2 Vict. c. 87. and 24 and 
25 Vict. c. 107. 



SCOTLAND. 77 

whether public or not. Provision is made 
for the transference of existing schools to 
the school board. 

The clauses as to the school tund, and the 
power of the board to impose rates and to 
borrow money, are similar to those in the 
English Acts, and it is declared that sunk 
lunds for behoof of burgh or parish 
schools shall be administered by the 
board, and that the board shall be at liberty 
to receive any property or funds to be em- 
ployed in promoting education. School- 
masters in office at the passing of the Act 
are not to be prejudiced in any of their 
rights, but all future appointments shall 
be during the pleasure of the board, who 
shall assign such salaries and emoluments 
as they think fit. 

Sections 56-59 relate to the qualifications of teach- 
ers, A principal teacher in a public school must 
possess a certificate of competency or an equivalent 
as defined in the Act. 

Section 62 contains provisions for the maintenance 
by the school board of higher class public schools 
in burghs, which are as far as practicable to be re- 
leased from the necessity of giving elementary in- 
struction, so that the funds may be applied more 
exclusively to the instruction on the higher branches. 
And when by reason of an endowment or otherwise 
a parish school is in a condition to give instruction 
in the higher branches, it may be deemed to be a 
higher class school and managed accordingly. 

Parliamentary grants are to be made flj to school 
boards, f2J to the managers of any school which is 
efficiently contributmg to secular education. No 



yS PUBLIC EDUCATION. 

grant shall be made in respect of fij religious in- 
struction, f2J new schools, not being public schools, 
unless it appears that they are required, regard be- 
ing had to the religious belief of the parents of the 
children for whom ihey are intended, or other special 
circumstances of the locality. Section 68 is the con- 
science clause, and it may be mentioned that the 
preamble of the Act states that it is expedient that 
managers of public schools should be at liberty to 
continue the custom of giving "instruction in re- 
ligion to children whose parents did not object, 
with liberty to parents, without forfeiting any of the 
other advantages of the schools, to elect that their 
children should not receive such instruction.' Sec- 
tion 69 imposes on parents the duty of providing 
elementary instruction for children between five and 
thirteen, and the parochial board shall pay the fee 
for poor parents. Defaulters may be prosecuted ; 
and persons receiving children into their houses or 
workshops shall be deemed to have undertaken the 
duties of parents with reference to the education of 
children. A certificate of the child's proficiency by 
an inspector protects the parent or employer from 
proceedings under the Act. Other clauses relate to^ 
the non educational duties imposed by various Acts 
on Fchoolmasters (now transferred to registrars), and 
to the "Schoolmasters' Widows' Fund," to which 
new masters are not required to contribute. 

The Education Board, continued by Order in 
'Council to 6th August, 1877, has been further con- 
tinued by statute to 6th August, 1878. 

Ireland. — The public elementary school 
system depends on grants made to the 
lord-lieutenant, to be expended under the 
direction of commissioners nominated by 
the Crown, and named "The Commission- 
ers of National education." The com- 
missioners were incorporated by this 



IRELAND. 79 

name in 1845, with power to hold land to 
the yearly value of ^40,000, The follow- 
ing statement, taken from the rules and 
regulations of the commissioners ap- 
pended to their report for 1873, exhibits 
the leading points of the system as con- 
trasted with that now established in Eng- 
land and Scotland. 

"The object of the system of national education is 
to afford combined literary' and moral and separate 
religious instruction to children of all persuasions, 
as far as possible in the same school, upon the fun- 
damental principle that no attempt shall be made to 
interfere with the peculiar religious tenets of any 
description of Christian pupils. It is an earnest 
wish of her Majesty's Government and of the com- 
missioners that the clergy and laity of the different 
religious denominations should co-operate in con- 
ducting national schools." 

The commissioners grant aid either to 
vested schools (i. e., schools vested in 
themselves, or in local trustees to be 
maintained by them as national schools^ 
or to non-vested (i. e.^ private schools^, 
and the grant may be towards payment of 
salary or supply of books, or, in the case 
of vested schools, towards providing 
buildings. 

The local government of the national 
schools is vested in the local patrons or 
managers thereof, and the local patron is 
the person who applies in the first instance 
to place the school in connection with the 
board, unless otherwise specified. The 



8o PUBLIC EDUCATION. 

patron may manage the school by himself 
or by a deputy. If the school is controlled 
by a committee or vested in trustees, they 
are the patrons. A patron may nominate 
his successor, and in case of death, his 
legal representative if he was a layman, and 
his successor in office if he was a clerical 
patron, will be recognized by the commis- 
sioners. The local patrons have the 
power of appointing and removing teach- 
ers, subject to a rule requiring three 
months' notice to the teacher. Every 
national school must be visited three times 
a year by inspectors. 

In non-vested schools, the commission- 
ers do not in general make any conditions 
as to the use of the building after school 
hours ; but no national school-house shall 
be employed at any time, even temporarily, 
as the stated place of divine worship of 
any religious community, and no grant 
will be made to a school held in a place 
ot worship. In all national schools there 
must be secular instruction four hours a 
day upon five days in the week. Religious 
instruction must be so arranged that each 
school shall be open to the children of all 
communions, that due regard be had to 
parental right and authority, and that ac- 
cordingly no child shall receive or be 
present at any religious instruction of 
which his parents or guardians disapprove. 



IRELAND. »I 

In non-vested schools it is for the patrons 
and local managers to determine whether 
any and what religious instruction shall 
be given. In all national schools, the 
patrons have the right to permit the Scrip- 
tures to be read ; and in all vested schools 
they must afford opportunities for the 
same, if the parents or guardians require 
it. [e. r.] 



A SELECT LIST 



OF 



EDUCATIONAL WORKS. 



NOTES AND REFERENCES. 



A Select List of Educational Works. 



Any of the following works will be sent postpaid on 
receipt of tlie price by C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, 
N. T. Unless otherwise specified all bindings are in 
cloth. 

Abbott, Jacob — Gentle Measures in the Manage- 
ment and Training of the Young. 12 mo., 
$1.75. New York. 

The Teacher. Moral Influences Employed 

in the Instruction and Government of the 
Young. 12 mo., $1.75. New York, 

Adams, F.— The Free School System of the United 
States. 8 vo.. 13.60. London. 

Arnold, Matthew — Higher Schools and Universities 
in Germany. Cr. 8 vo., $2.40. London. 

AscHAM, Roger — The Schoolmaster. 12 mo., $2.40. 
London. (Mayor's edition). 

Bain, Alexander — Education as a Science, 12 mo., 
$1.75. New York. 

Bardeen. C.W. — Common School Law. 16 mo., 
$0.50. Syracuse. 

Barnard, Henry — Normal Schools. 8 vo., $5.50. 
Hartford. 

English Teachers, Schools, and Educational 

Reformers. 8vo., $3.50. 

German Teachers and Educational Re- 



formers. 8vo.,$3.50. 

French Teachers, Schools, and Pedagogy. 



8 vo., $3.50. 
American Teachers, Educators, and Ben- 
efactors of Education. 5 vols., 8 vo., $17.50. 

Pestalozzi and Swiss Pedagogy. 8 vo,, 

$3.50. 



86 APPENDIX. 

Blackie, John Stuart. — On Self Culture. 16 mo., 
$1.00. New York. 

Bristed, Charles Astor — Five Years in an English 
University. 12 mo., $2.25. New York. 

BuissON, F. — Dictionnaire de Pedagogic et d'lnstruc- 
tion Primaire. 8 vo. Paris. 

Calderwood, H. — On Teaching: Its Ends and 
Means. 16 mo., $i. 25. New York. 

Calkins, N. A. — Primary Object Lessons. 12 mo., 
$1.50.. New York. 

Carpenter, W. B. — Principles of Mental Physiolo- 
gy. 12 mo., 13.00. New York. 

Clarke, E. H. — The Building of a Brain. 16 mo., 
$1.25.. Boston. 

Sex in Education. 16 mo,, $1,25. 

Compayre, G. — Histoire Critique des Doctrines de 
L'Education en France, depuis le seizidme 
siecle. 2 vols., 16 mo. , paper.. $2.25. Paris. 

CuRRiE, James — The Principles and Practice of 
Common School Education. 12 mo,, $3.00. 
London, 

Davies, Emilv — The Higher Education of Women. 
12 mo. ,'$1.50. London. 

De Graff, E. V.— The School-Room Guide, 16 
mo., $1.50. Syracuse. 

Edgeworth, Maria and R. L. — Essays on Practical 
Education. 2 vols,, 8 vo,, calf, $4.00. Lon- 
don. 

Everett, W, — On the Cam. Lectures on the Uni- 
versity of Cambridge, in England. 12 mo., 
Cambridge, 

Farr^r, F. W.-^On Some Defects in Public School 
Education, 16 mo,, paper. London. 

Essays on a Liberal Education. 8 vo., 

$3,00, London, 

Fitch, J. G. — Lectures on Teaching, delivered in the 
University of Cambridge. 8 vo., $1,75, Lon- 
don. 



EDUCATIONAL WORKS. 87 

Gow, A. M. — Good Morals and Gentle Manners. 
12 mo., $1.50. Cincinnati. 

Hailmann, W. N. — Kindergarten Culture. A com- 
plete sketch of Froebel's System of early 
training. 12 mo., $0.75. Cincinnati. 

Four Lectures on Early Child Culture. 16 

mo.. $0.40. Milwaukee. 

Twelve Lectures on the History of Peda- 



gogy. 12 mo., $0.75. Cincinnati 
Hamerton, p. G. — The Intellectual Life. 8 vo., 

$2.00. Boston. 
Hamilton, W. — Lectures on Metaphysics. 8 vo., 

$2.88. New York. 
Discussions on Philosophy and Literature, 

Education and University Pteform. 8 vo., 

.$2.00. New York. 
Hart, J. M. — German Universities. 12 mo., $1.75. 

New York. 
Hill, Thomas -The True Order of Studies. 12 mo., 

.$1.25. New York. 
HiPPEAU, C.—flJ L' Instruction Publique en Ang- 

leterre ; f2J dans Suede, Norvege, Danemark ; 

fSJ en Allemagne ; f4:J aux fitats Unis ; 

f5J en Italie. 5 vols., 12 mo. Paris. 
HiTTELL, John S. — A Brief History of Culture. 12 

mo., $1.50. New York. 
HooSE, J. H. — On the Province of Methods in Teach- 
ing. 12 mo., $1.00. Syracuse. 
Hughes, Thomas — School Days at Rugby. 12 mo., 

$1.00. Boston. 
Huntington, F. D. — Unconscious Tuition. 16 mo., 

$0.15. Syracuse. 
Jardine, G. — Outlines of Philosophical Education. 

8 vo. Glasgow. 
Jewell, F. S. — School Government. 12 mo., $1.50. 

New York. 
Kennedy, John— The School and The Family. 16 

mo., $1.00. New York. 



88 APPENDIX. 

Kiddle AND Schem — The Cyclopaedia of Education. 
8vo.,$5.00. New York. 

KiNGSLEY, C— Health and Education. 12 mo., 
$1.75. New York. 

Krusi, H. — Pestalozzi : His Life, Work, and In- 
fluence. 8 vo., $2.25. Cincinnati. 

Laurie, S. S. — On Primary Instruction in Relation 
to Education. 12 mo., $2.00. London. 

Lavelaye, E.—L' Instruction du Peuple. 8 vo. 
Paris. 

Leitch, James — Practical Educationists and their 
Systems of Teaching. 12 mo., $3.00. Glas- 
gow. 

Lincoln, D, F. — School and Industrial Hygiene. 
12 mo., 10.50. Philadelphia. 

Locke, John — Some Thoughts concerning Educa- 
tion. Edited by R. H. Quick. 12mo.,$1.25. 
London. 

Maclaren, a. — A System of Physical Education. 

12 mo., $2.60. Oxford. 
Mann, Horace — Annual Reports on Education from 

1839 to 1848. 8 vo., $3.00. Boston. 
Lectures and Annual Reports on Educa- 
tion. 8 vo., 13.00. Boston. 
Mann, Mrs Horace — The Life of Horace Mann. 8 

vo.,|3.00. Boston. 
Marcel, C. — On the Study of Languages. 12 mo., 

$1,25, ^paper $0.15;, New Yoik. 
Marenholz-Buelow — Reminiscences of Frederic 

Froebel. 12 mo., $1.50. Boston. 
Miller, Hugh— My Schools and Schoolmasters. 12 

mo., $1.50. New York. 
Moss, J. F.— Handbook of the New Code, 1880. 8 

vo , $0.80. London. 
Newman, John Henry — Idea of a University. 8 vo., 

$2.80. London. 
Page, D. P. — Theory and Practice of Teaching. 12 

mo., $1.50. New York. 



EDUCATIONAL WORKS. 8^ 

Paroz, Jules— Histoire Universelle de la Pedagogic. 

16 mo., paper, |1, 50. Paris. 
Payne, Joseph — Lectures on the Science and Art of 

Education. Introduction by the Rev, R. H. 

Quick. 8 vo. London. $3.50. 
A Visit to German Schools. 16 mo., 

|L80, London. 
Porter, N. — The American Colleges and the 

American Pub'ic. (second edition) 12 mo., 

$1.50. New York. 
Quick, R. H. — Essays on Educational Reformers. 

12 mo., $2.00. Cincinnati. - 
Randall, S. S. — History of the Common School 

System of the State of New York. 8 vo., 

$3.00. New York. 
Raumer, Karl von — Geschichte der Padagogik, 

4 vols., 8 vo., $10.50. Stuttgart. 
RosENKRANZ, C. — The Science of Education. 8 vo., 

paper, $1.00,, St. Louis, 
Rousseau, J. J. — Emile, ou de I'Education. (^Ex- 
traits Choisisy*. Avecdeux Introductions par 

Paul fSouquet. 12 mo., paper, $0.75. Paris. 

The complete works translated, 4 vols., calf, 

$5.00. Dublin. 
Schmidt, H. I. — History of Education, Ancient 

and Modern. 18 mo,', 10.75. New York. 
Schmidt, Karl — Geschichte der Padagogik. 4 vols., 

8 vo. Cothen. 
Shirreff, Emily — Intellectual Education and its 

Influence on the Character and Happiness of 

Women. 12 mo., $2.40. London. 
Shuttleworth, J, K. -Four Periods of Public 

Education. ,8 vo., $5.60. London, 
Souquet, Paul — Ecrivains Pedagogues du XVIe 

Si^cle. Extraits des CEuvres de. 12 mo , 

$0.60. Paris. 
Spencer. H. — Education: Intellectual, Moral, and 

Physical. 12 mo., $1,25, (paper $0.50,) New 

York, 



90 APPENDIX. 

Stanley, A. P. — Life and Correspondence of 
Thomas Arnold. 12 mo., $2.50. New York. 

Staunton, H.— The Great Schools of England. 
. 8 vo., $2.50. London. 

Steffens, H. — German University Life. 12 mo., 
$1.25. Philadelphia. 

Stetson, C. B.— Technical Education. 16 mo., 
$1.25. Boston. 

SwETT, John— Methods of Teaching. 12 mo., 
$L50. New York. 

Thomson, W. — An Outline of the Necessary Laws 
of Thought. 12 mo., $1.50. New York. 

Watson, J. M. — Handbook of Calisthenics and 
Gymnastics. 8 vo., $2.00. New York. 

WiCKERSHAM, J. P. — Methods of Instruction. 12^ 
mo., $1.75. Philadelphia. 

School Economy. 12 mo., $1.75. Phila- 
delphia. 



Notes and Reterences. 



General Sources of Information. 

Schmidt and Raumer are the great authorities on 
the history of education. Copious translations from 
Raumer are contained in Barnard's Amefican Joilv- 
nal of Educaiion, a.nd the portions relating to Ger- 
man education are collected in Barnard's German 
Teachers and Educators. 

Paroz's Histoire Universelle is elegantly written, 
and contains, within a moderate compass, an admir- 
able summary of educational history. 

For the study of special topics, Mr. Quick's Edu- 
cational Reformers cannot be too highly commended. 
Mr. Leitch writes with much less critical discern- 
ment, and some of his subjects are of minor impor- 
tance, but his work may be read with great profit. 

As a critical history of educational doctrines, the 
v/ork of Compayreis of incomparable value. Though 
he is occupied chiefly with French pedagogy, he dis- 
cusses almost every aspect of the educational prob- 
lem, and always with great penetration and clear- 
ness. 



■92 APPENDIX. 

The Reform in Education. 

The Reformation marks the further limit of the 
modern period of educational history ; and these be- 
ginnings of educational reform deserve very careful 
study. The compilation of Souquet, and particular- 
ly his introduction, will be found very helpful. 
Schmidt, Raumer, Compayre, and Paroz will supply 
an abundance of material bearing on this topic. For 
a study of the recognized educational reformers, the 
works of Mr. Quick and Mr. Barnard are invaluable. 



Rousseau and his Emile. 

With the progress of educational science, the in- 
fluence of Rousseau is perceptibly and steadily 
growing, and a careful study of the Emile is be- 
coming imperative. This study may now be conven- 
iently prosecuted at first hand through the compila- 
tion just made by Souquet. The fairest estimate of 
Rousseau that I have yet seen, is contained in the 
second volume of Compayre. 



Joseph Payne. 

By far the most valuable of recent contributions 
to educational literature from English sources, is 
Joseph Payne's Lectures, edited by his son, and con- 
taining an introduction by Mr. Quick. Mr. Payne 
was a disciple of Jacotot. and -in this volume he 
gives an admirable exposition of his master's sys- 
tem. Outside of England, the doctrines of Jacotot 
enjoy but little consideration ; but there are very 
few modern writers on education who are more 
worthy of serious study. Each of his paradoxes em- 
<bodies a doctrine worth the knowing. 



NOTES AND REFERENCES. 93. 

The Old Education and the New, 

In studying the later developments of educa- 
tional thought, it is essential to keep in mind 
the fact that they embody a reaction against 
antagonistic doctrines ; and the further fact that " the 
suppression of an error is commonly followed by 
the temporary ascendancy of a contrary one." There 
are sharp points of contrast between the old educa- 
tion and the new. Each has a measure of truth and 
a measure of error ; each is right in what it admits 
and wrong in what it denies ; and so each is in a 
great degree the complement of the other. The 
truth will be found to lie somewhere between the 
two extremes. 

Pestalozzi. 

No just and adequate estimate of Pestalozzi's 
influence can be formed unless his doctrines are 
contrasted with those that he sought to supplant. 
We are living in the midst of transformations that 
have been wrought through the influence of Pes- 
talozzianism ; and so the present does not furnish 
the criteria by which to estimate the importance of 
this innovation in educational thought. 

Every new Phase in Education embodies 
AN Idea. 

No new movement in education can be adequately 
interpreted without taking into account the cognate 
phases of thought, social, political, philosophical, 
and religious, with which it co-existed. Some dom- 
inant idea will be found to underlie every system of 
educational doctrine. When the principal of au- 
thority was dominant in church and state, it was 
also dominent in the schools, and prescribed its 
methods of discipline and ol instruction ; and the 
decline of authority in church and state has induced 
a corresponding change in the methods of the school. 



94 APPENDIX. 

The philosophical idea that is dominant in the new 
education is that of development ; and in this 
country when the professional teacher must count 
with his constituents, there is the concurrent and 
modifying idea of utility. 

Need of a General History of Educational 
Doctrines. 

The construction of a general history of education, 
for the express purpose of tracing the rise and prog- 
ress of all the marked phases of educational 
thought, and characterized by the critical discern- 
ment that gives such charm and value to the work 
of Compayre, is a thing greatly to be desired at this 
time when questions of school policy are beginning 
to be discussed on a scientific basis. 

Buisson's Dictionnaiye de la Pedagogic. 

Buisson's Dictionnaire de la Pedagogie, now in 
process of publication, is on all accounts the most 
valuable book of reference that can be commended 
to the professional teacher. Scarcely any other 
book will be required to supplement this short 
history of education, so complete is its treat- 
ment of historical and biographical subjects. 



COMENIUS. 



COMENIUS. 



Comparative Table of Dates. 



Erasmus 1467-1536 Rousseau 1712-1778 

Luther ...1483-1546 Diderot 1713-1784 

Sturm 1507-1589 Condillac 1715-1780 

Ascham 1515-1568 Basedow 1723-1790 

Ramus 1515-1572 Kant 1724-1804 

Montaigne. .. .1533-1592 Pestalozzi . . . 1746-1827 

Bacon 1561-1626 [acotot 1770-1840 

Ratke 1571-1635 Fellenberg. ...1771-1844 

CoMENius 1592-1671 Froebel 1782-1852 

Descartes .. .1596-1650 Diesterweg. . .1790-1866 

Milton 1608-1674 Cousin 1792-1867 

Locke 1632-1704 Beneke. 1798-1856 

Francke 1663-1727 Spencer 1820 

Outline Biograjjliy. 



1592. Born at Nivnitz, a village of Moravia, on the 
confines of Hungary ; early an orphan ; began 
his education at the age of 16. 
i 1610. Went to the Universities of Herborn and Hei- 
delberg; then traveled for ten years in Hol- 
land and perhaps in England. 

1614. Returned to Bohemia and became director of 
the school in Prerau, where he published his 
first work, Gj avwiaticae Facilioris Pmecepta, 

1618. Became pastor of the Bohemian Brethren in 
Fulneck. 

1621. By the sack of Fulneck, lost his property, 
books and MS. ; and for several years was a 
refugee from religious persecution. 



98 APPENDIX. 

1637. By the Edict of July 31, followed the Mora- 
vians into permanent banishment and took 
refuge in Lissa Poland, where he wrote his 
yamia Linguarum Reserata. 

1641. Went to London by the invitation of Parlia- 
ment, at the instance of Samuel Hartlib, (the 
friend of Milton) who, in 1631, had published 
at Oxford a part of the Didactica Magna, 

1642. Went on an educational mission into Sweden, 
and thence to Elbing, Prussia. 

1648. Made Bishop of the Moravians and took up 
his residence again in Lissa. 

1650. Went to Patak, Hungary, to establish a model 
school on the principles of his Pansophia. 
While in Patak he wrote the most popular of 
his works, the Orhis Sensuallum Pictus. On 
leaving Patak he returned to Lissa. 

1656. On the burning of Lissa by the Polish Catho- 
lics, took refuge in Amsterdam. 

1671. November 15, died at Amsterdam. 

Appreciation. 



"The system which he sketched will be found to 
foreshadow the education of the future." 

" He was one of the first advocates of the teaching 
of science in schools." 

*' His kindness, gentleness, and sympathy, make 
him the forerunner of Pestalozzi." — Encycl. Brit. 

" Comenius founded nothing durable and distinc- 
tive ; he was but an admirable precursor. His work 
had to be again taken up, continued and perfected, 
by the educators of the following century, the most 
pf whom did not know him — so soon was he forgot- 



COMENIUS. 99 

ten — and who followed in his foot-steps, like Rous- 
seau and Pestalozzi, without suspecting it." — Buis- 
son. 

" A Protestant grammarian and theologian ; was 
a mad-man, but from this mad man we have a book 
entit'ed yajiua Lingnarum Reserata, which was 
translated not only into twelve European languages, 
but a'so into the principal languages of Asia." — 
Enc Meihodique. 

'• Of boundless generosity and intelligence, he 
embraced all knowledge and every nationality. 
Through every country — Poland, Hungary, Sweden, 
England, Holland — he went teaching, first Peace, 
and then the means of peace — Universal Fraternity. 
He wrote a hundred works, taught in a hundred 
cities. Sooner or later, the scattered members of 
this great man, that he left upon every route, will be 
reu n i ted ." — Michelet. 

" As a school reformer he was the forerunner of 
Rousseau, Basedow, and Pestalozzi, suggested a 
mode of instruction which renders learning attract- 
ive to children by pictures and illustrations, and 
wrote the first pictorial school-book." — New Am. 
Cycl. 

"Comeniusis a grand and venerable figure of 
sorrow. Wandering, persecuted, and homeless, 
during the terrible and desolating thirty years' war, 
he never despaired ; but with enduring and faithful 
truth, labored unweariedlv to prepare youth, by a 
better education, for a better future. His undes- 
pairing aspirations seem to have lifted up, in a large 
part of Europe, many good men, prostrated bv the 
terrors of the times, and to have inspired them with 
the hope that by a pi 'us and wise system of educa- 
tion, there would be reared up a race of men more 
pleasing to God." — Raume'r. 



lOO APPENDIX, 

Bibliography. 



I. 

Sources of Information. 

1. Cyclopaedia of Education. E. Steiger, New 
York: 1877. 

2. Dictionnaire de Pedagogic et d'Instruclion 
Primaire. Ire Partie. 

3. Quick's Essays on Educational Reformers, 
Chapter III. (Cincinnati: 1879. 

4. Histoire Critique des Doctrines de L'Educa- 
tion en France. Par G. Compayre. Paris: 1879. 
Tome Premier, pp. 256-263. 

5. Michelet. Nos Fils. Paris : 1877. 

6. Jules Paroz. Histoire Universelle de la Peda- 
gogic. Paris, pp. 203-216. 

7. Karl Schmidt. Geschichte der Padagogik. Co- 
then : 1873 -1876. pp. 366-398, Dritter Band. 

8. Karl von Raumer, Geschichte der Padagogik, 
Stuttgart: 1857. pp. 48-100, Zweiter Theil. 

9. Barnard's American Journal of Education. 
Vol. v., pp. 257-298. [A translation of No. 8.] Also 
Vol. VI, p. 585. [On the Orbis Pichcs.'] 

10. Bayle's Historical and Critical Dictionary. 
London: 1735. 

11. Carpzov. Religionsuntersuchung der Boh- 
mischen und Milhrischen Briider, 

12. Gindely. Ueber des J. A. Comenius' Leben 
und Wirksamkeit in der Fremde. (In the proceed- 
ings of the Vienna Academy of Science: Vienna, 
1855.) 



COMENIUS, lOI 

13. Leutbecher. Johann Amos Comenius, Lehr- 
kunst: Leipzig, 1853. 

14. Dr. Eugen Pappenheim. Amos Comenius, 
der BcLTunder der neuen Padagogik. Berlin: 1871. 

15 K. A. Schmid. Padagogisches Handbuch fur 
Schu'e und Haus. Gotha : 1877. 

16. Sej-fFarth, L. W. J, A. Comenius, nach sein- 
em Leben und seiner padagogischen Bedeutung. 
Leipzig: 1871. 

17. Beitriige zur Piidagogik. Ueber die histor- 
iscbe Darstellung der padagogischen Jdeen mit be- 
sonderer Beziehung auf Rousseau und Comenius. 
Lowenberg: 1875. 

18. Comenius Amos. Die Mutterschule. Aufs 
Neue hrsg. v. Herm. Schroter. Weissenfels: 1864. 

19. Hoffmeister, Herra. Comenius und Pestaloz- 
zi als Begriinder der Volksschule, wissenschaftlich 
dargestellt. 8 vo. Berlin : 1877. 

Note — ''We are assured that France will soon 
have two works upon Comenius, which, we hope, 
will be only a prelude to important studies relating 
to this eminent educator; one by M. Rieder and the 
other by M. Diog. Bertrand." — Die. de Pcdag. 



IL 
Works. 



1. Didactica Opera Omnia ab anno 1627 ad 1657 
continuata. Amstelodamus, Chr. Conradus et Gabr. 
a Roy: 1657. 4 part, in-fol., avec portr , 482,462, 
1064 et 110 coX—Bmnet. 

This edition contains the collected works of Co- 
menius, edited by himself, and published by the 
munificence of his Patron, Lorenzo de Geer. 

2. Orbis Sensualium Pictus, denuo auctus et 
nova cura emendatus. Noribergge : 1769. 



I02 APPENDIX. 

3. Comeiiius, Johann Amos. Ausgewahl'e Schrif- 
ten: Mutterschule, Pansophia, Pftngnosie, etc. Ue- 
bersetzt und mit Erliiuterungen versehen von Ju. 
Beeger uni Johann Leutbecher. 8 vo. Leipzig 

4 Comenius's (John Amos) Visible World ; or a 
Nomenclature and Pictures, of all the chief things 
that are in the World, etc , illustrated with 150 curi- 
ous rude woodcuts, 12 mo. 1777. 

5 Karl Richter. Piidagogische Bibliothek . Eine 
Sammlung der wichtigsten piidagogischen Schriften 
alter und neuerer Zeit. Leipzig. 

Volume third contains the Didactlca Magna, an 
appreciation ol it, a Life of Comenius, an^t notes. 
Edited by Julius Beeger and Franz Zoubek. 

6. Dr, Th, Lion. Bibliothek piidagogischer Clas- 
siker. Langensalza: 1875. Contains German tran- 
slations of the pedagogical works of Comenius. 

7. Johann Amos Comenius. Grosse Unteriechts- 
lehre {Didaciica Magna), mit einer Einleitung von 
Gustav Adolf Linder. Wien:1877. 

The Three Great Pedagogical Works 
of Comenius. 



Comenius was a very prolific writer, being the 
author of more than eighty publications, written in 
Slavic (Czechic), Latin, and German; but he owes 
his fame to the three following works. 

L DiDACTiCA Magna, seu OxMnes omnia docendt 
Ariificium. 

This great work was begun in 1627, while Co 
menius was living in exile at Sloupna. It was fin- 
ished in 1632, but remained in manuscript till 1849, 
when it was published in the original language 
(Czechic). 



COMENIUS. 103 

A translation of a part of the Didactica Magna^ un- 
der the title of Prod)oinus Pansophiae^ was published 
in London in 1639, through the mediation of Samuel 
Hartlib, by whose influence Parliament invited 
Comenius to England to organize a reform in public 
education. Buisson, in his Dictionnaire de Pedagogic. 
pronounces the Didactica Magna " one of (he most 
remarkable treatises that have been written on the 
science of education," 

II. JaNUA LlNGUARUM ReSERATA. 

This work, published at Lissa in 1631, was sug- 
gested by a book bearing the same tit'e, wr tten by 
an Irish Jesuit named Batty, who was connected 
with the Jesuit College at Salamanca. It was trans- 
lated, as Comenius himself tells us, into Greek, Bo 
hemian, Polish, Swedish, Belgian, English, French, 
Spanish, Italian, Hungarian, Turkish, Arabic, 
Persian, and even Mongolic. The general plan of 
the Janua may be seen from the following quotation: 
" Comenius believed that the knowledge of words 
should serve at the same time to acquire a knowl- 
edge of things. He therefore resolved to classify in 
methodical order all created things, with their Latin 
names, and a translation, in parallel columns ; and 
to make of this general vocabulary a universal 
repertory of information, where the pupil might at 
the same time learn Latin and general science. He 
collected eight thousand words, with which he con 
structed one thousand sentences, and these he dis- 
tributed into one hundred chapters." 

III. Orbis Sensualium Pictus, hoc est, omnium fun- 
damentalixiini in mundo reium^ et in vita acitonum, 
pictura et nomerulattcra. 

The first edition of this famous book was pub- 
lished at Nuremberg in 1657 ; and soon after a trans- 
lation was made into English by Charles Hoole. 
The last English edition appeared in 1777, and this 



104 APPENDIX. 

was reprinted in America in 1812. This was the 
first illustrated school-book, and was the first at- 
tempt at what now passes under the name of ''object 
lessons." 

"The 'Orbis' was, in substance, the same as the 
'Janua,' though abbreviated, but it had this dis- 
tinctive feature, that each subject was illustrated by 
a small engraving, in which everything named in the 
letter press below was marked with a number, and 
its name was found connected with the same number 
in the text." — Quick. 

Educational Principles of Comenius. 

(Arranged from Paroz's Histoire Universelle de la 
Pedagogie.) 

1. Instruction is easy in proportion as it follows 
the course of nature. 

2. Instruction ouijht to be progressive and adapted 
to the growing vigor of the intellectual faculties. 

3. It is a fundamental error to begin instruction 
with languages and terminate it with things — math- 
ematics, natural history, etc. ; for things are the sub- 
stance, the body, while words are the accident, the 
dress. These two portions of knowledge should be 
united, but we should begin with things, which are 
the objects of thought and of speech. 

4. It is also an error to begin the study of lan- 
guage with grammar. We should first present the 
subject matter in an author or a well-arranged 
vocabulary. The form, i e. the grammar, does not 
come till afterwards. 

5. Wc should first exercise the senses (perception), 
then the memory, then the intelligence, and lastly 
the judgment (reasoning). For science begins with 
the observation ; the impressions received are then 
imprinted upon the memory and the imagination ; 
the intelligence next seizes upon the notions held 



COMENIUS. 105 

in store in the memory and from tiiem deduces gen- 
eral ideas ; finally, the reason draws conclusions 
from the things sufficiently known and co-ordinated 
in the intelligence. 

6. It is not sufficient, merely to make the pupil 
comprehend ; he should also learn to express and 
to apply what he has comprehended. 

7. It is not the shadow of things which impresses 
the senses and the imagination, but the things them- 
selves. It is then by a real intuition that instruction 
should begin, and not by a verbal description of 
things. 

8. By observation, the pupil should first gain a 
general notion of an object, and should then observe 
each part by itself and in its relation to the whole. 

9. Talent is developed by exercise. We leirn to 
write by writing, to sing by singing, etc. 

10. The study of languages ought to commence 
with the mother tongue . A language is learned bet- 
ter by use, by the ear, by writing, etc., than by rules, 
which should follow use in order to give it greater 
exactness. 



-A 



-^z 



oo 



^^./ 






^^^ 






i^, 


















o.'^' 



S -^^^ 






3 






,V . 















-^ .<^ 






-^c- 



. -^^ 






'^^. 



^0- s ^ ^ ' / 



-/' 






"^^^_ ^ 



^' -x^ 



-^^ 






